Hepatitis Resource Center

Hepatitis B Vaccination in the City

2008-06-02T12:03:00.000-07:00

I have been seeing a lot of banners around our city stating that they offer Hepa B vaccination services, but yes, for a fee.

Vaccination for hepatitis B is like around PhP 1,500 (US$1= PhP 43 something). If you are an average worker earning minimum (PhP 250.00), you definitely will not be able to take advantage of the vaccination program and will just leave everything to faith.LOL.
Well, I mean, no wonder diseases around infest the poor. I mean, they do not have an immediate access to medicines and vaccinations due to the fact that they cannot afford it. They would rather buy themselves food instead of buying them a vaccine that confer them the needed protection against vaccine-preventable life-threatening diseases like Hepatitis B.

Well, I would not want to believe that life is unfair and people are not created equal but I am hoping that governments around the globe will include free adult immunization program as part of their health programs for the masses - at least just on the basic-health services.

Sorry...

2008-05-31T12:05:00.000-07:00

As with most of my other blogsites, I would like to apologize for not being able to update my blog for almost a month now. My mom's health predicament made me so much busy and rendered me incapable to do other things, hence my blogs slept. :)

Now that everything came back to normal, I promise to update my blogs. Be sure to check my other blogs as well. My main blog keeps the regular update because I can usually write almost anything in there, unlike this blog which caters only for health issues related HIV and AIDS.

You can check on my other blogs by clicking on the blogsites under the MY BLOGS on the right side of this blogscreen. Thanks!

Insurmountable Pain

2008-04-27T17:05:00.001-07:00

I haven't been able to write something in my blog for the past 8 days due to my mom being at ICU at St. Raphael Foundation and Medical Center. She suffered massive blood loss because her lung tissues collapsed due to frequent coughing and add to that - infections. Now that her immune system dropped, she suffered from secondary bacterial infections such as Tuberculosis (TB), pneumonia, sepsis, a type of infection of the blood, which are now under control. But she is still being observed at the ICU and will yet to wait as to when she will leave ICU and be sent to an ordinary patient room though.

My heart bleeds everytime I see her suffering. This incident has caused my mother, me and my family a lot - emotionally, physically, mentally and all that stuff. I had to ask for all of my relatives' help just to buy my mom her medicine since I already run out of budget and all of my savings are gone for the hospital had to cancel all medicine supplies for my mom since our bill is getting really high and that I have to buy everything that she needs from dextrose, medicines, and all the liquid solutions that she needs while she is in ICU.

I am asking all your help to please pray for my mom and my family. May God help us to get through all this soon enough and help my mom recover completely. Thank you so much for reading. Thank you so much...

Jules

Grapefruit to Replace Hepatitis C Drugs?

2008-04-08T01:27:00.001-07:00

I was reading this article online from What Doctors Don't Tell You and it tickled me into thinking about the research paper I made at University of the Philippines, Open University at Los Baños, Laguna regarding Bitter Gourd as possible cure for a number of communicable diseases such as Hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS, and cancer.

The article talks about the medicinal properties of grapefruit that is similar to those of the powerful anti-viral drugs which are used for treatments for hepatitis C. The Journal of the American Medical Association pointed out that a typical grapefruit contains flavonoid and naringenin, which have the ability to inhibit the ability of a hepatitis C virus to replicate and thereby continue destroying tissues. These are also the two main ingredients which gives the fruit its bitter taste.

Well, sounds like a nice idea and it really was nice-to-know information. I always believe that people should start going back to basics since some fruits, vegetables, and herbs contain ingredients that have the potential to cure but cannot serve such function if they are not contained in their natural host (that is, the ingredient is not taken from its original source) since most of substances that have substantial medicinal properties have synergystic properties as well, that is, they cannot function well or its effect will not be as effective as when you take it from the original source.

What do you guys think about herbs? How about starting to cure the person's "mind" before curing the person physically as some of the diseases on the planet are more of psycho-somatic in nature or the so-called "its all in the mind" attitude? What do you think?

Health-Risk for Travellers: Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B and Tyhpoid Fever

2008-04-06T16:36:00.000-07:00

Travel is exciting since you get to see places and enjoy the pleasure of meeting new people, and experiencing the joy of making new friends. Well, inspite of the good things that travelling gives people, there are also risk associated with it.

Yes, diseases. As people,from all walks of life travel from place to place, the movement of diseases increases proportionately. A person who appears healthy and was never diagnosed for any diseases before he begins travelling might manifest diseases along the course of his/her stay on a certain place and any contact that that person does will affect, on a larger part, the overall health of the people around him/her. If that person is infected by a communicable disease/s chances are there lies the risk of infecting, the immediate people around him/her (if not all).

Well, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, and Tyhpoid Fever are just some of the few diseases that are rapidly moving around the planet. But the good thing is, all of these diseases are vaccine-preventable. Health is always our best resource for a good life. One may realize that money is meaningless once we get sick. But then again, we need money to support our hospitalization if in case we fall ill to any of the diseases around. =)

According to my readings, travellers abroad are always advised to take on a vaccine program that would immunize a person from the notorious diseases plaguing humanity, especially if a person is travelling to Asia where all the diseases mentioned above (Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, Tyhpoid Fever) are endemic (prevalent).

I am not sure if the Philippines has it. I mean, if the appropriate government agency in the Philippines is becoming effective of their mandated task to inform people about the health dangers there is in travelling and advise them to undergo appropriate vaccination programs against the diseaess endemic to the place they will visit. I have never been out of the country though. Do all travel agencies here in the Philippines provide health advisories to their clients when they schedule them for a flight and advise them to take on a vaccination program that will protect them against all possible diseases endemic to that place? Well, what say you? :)

Vietnam to Provide 5-in-one Vaccine by 2009

2008-04-02T16:12:00.000-07:00

Vietnam is doing a great job in setting up a plan to provide free 5-in-one vaccine that would provide immunization to 5 of the known debilitating diseases namely: polio, whooping cough, tetanus, Haemophilus Influenzae type B (Hib) and Hepatitis B.

Vietnam's National Expanded Programme of Immunisation (EPI) sought the help of Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisation (GAVI) to support the said program by coming up with ways on how to produce the said consolidated vaccine. Vietnam is considering vaccinating 1.5 million children under the said program (EPI).

Canadian Hepa B Treatment Program

2008-03-31T17:41:00.000-07:00

The Canadian government has unveiled a health program that benefits individuals suffering from chronic hepatitis b. According to Canada's British Columbian government, there are around 300,000 to 600,000 individuals living with such condition and such numbers continue to rise and that Asian Pacific Islanders covers the highest percentage of the pie.

The provincial governmetn supports two drug treatment programs namely adefovir (marketed under the Brand name Hepsera) and entecavir (marketed as Baraclude). The estimated budget allocation is around $3 Million annually.

Each treatment program has corresponding treatment guide and each drug has its own program that deals with any incidence of virus drug resistance. The Vancouver Sun has more.

No Exercise and Frequent Fast Food Meals Not Good to Liver

2008-03-10T05:16:00.000-07:00

If you think that chronic inactivity and eating fast food meals will save you time and money instead of going to a good restaurant or not cooking your own meal at home is healthy, Well, think again. The journal Gut provided the result of one of their experimental researches on the effect of eating too much fast food meals and inactivity to the liver.

The result of the research states that unhealthy lifestyle can take its toll on the liver which is indicative of certain proteins like alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and detected in the blood stream. Damaged liver cells produce specific proteins and secrete them in the blood stream. These molecules are detected through blood chemistry checks. The Hepatitis B Foundation posted the article on its site. Read more at Science Daily.

State Crisis due to Medical Malpractice Issue at Endoscopy Center of Southern Nevada in Las Vegas

2008-03-08T20:08:00.000-08:00

It was such a tragedy as I may say that more than 40,000 patients may have been exposed to have various communicable diseases like Hepatitis B, C, or HIV in an Endoscopy Center of Southern Nevada in Las Vegas for several of the nurses anesthesiologists there have inadvertently reused the syringes for administering anesthesia so thousands of patients who go there everyday to undergo certain invasive medical procedure.

It was sad to note that a couple of nurses, 5 so far, have volunteered to give up their licenses due to the said negligence and violation of medical ethics among nurses. Healthline.com provides more information about this issue and how to contact the Southern Nevada Health District's hotline for further advise regarding this issue.

Hepatitis Outbreak due to Unsafe Medical Practices

2008-03-08T19:30:00.000-08:00

Considering the multiple ways on how one might get infected with hepatitis b, there also seems to be some connection on nurses/doctor-patient care which might expose patients to these communicable diseases.

There are multiple incidence where doctors, nurses and anesthesiologists were reported to have inadvertently exposed patients to these types of diseases due to unsafe medical practices like the reuse of syringes and other medical devices.

We know that used, and disposable medical devises such as syringes should not in any way, be reused for the purpose of cost-savings practices or any other reasons so to speak. Read what American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (AANA) has to say regarding this issue.

Hybrid Biotechnology Technique May be Used to Wipe Out Hepatitis, Bird Flu, Anthrax, etc.

2007-10-28T17:50:00.000-07:00

Scientists at the Canada's Defense Department are in the process of developing hybrid technology in order to combat just some of the world's hideous health problems.

The department is currently working with ViRexx Medical Corp. in order to possibly apply the existing technology which is Chimigen that may help resolve existing problems faced by scientists in the field of microbiology.

Hepatitis, Cancer, Bird Flu, Anthrax and AIDS are the world's most deadliest diseases and ViRexx Medical Corp. is confident that the Chimigen platform will be able to deliver therapeutic vaccines that targets each disease by "retraining"the body to fight off the infection.

The Chimigen technology is still in its infancy and the medical community is hopeful that this new technology will be able to deliver its intended results in the coming years.

R7128 Received Fast-track Status from FDA

2007-10-27T21:05:00.000-07:00

The US Food and Drug Administration has given Pharmasset Inc.'s (NASDAQ:VRUS) R7128 a fast-track status in order to make the drug become more available to individuals who are chronically infected with Hepatitis C Virus. CNN has the story.

Vaccine for Hepatitis C is not yet available and just like Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C can cause liver damage such as cirrhosis and cancer.

According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that, "you may be at risk for hepatitis C and should contact your medical care provider for a blood test if you:

* were notified that you received blood from a donor who later tested positive for hepatitis C.
* have ever injected illegal drugs, even if you experimented a few times many years ago
* received a blood transfusion or solid organ transplant before July, 1992
* were a recipient of clotting factor(s) made before 1987
* have ever been on long-term kidney dialysis
* have evidence of liver disease (e.g., persistently abnormal ALT levels)

Please visit Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for more information about Hepatitis C virus.

Hepatitis C Carrier, Pamela Anderson, Getting Healthier

2007-10-26T14:21:00.000-07:00

Indeed Hepatitis C and other subtypes of Hepatitis such as Hepatitis B spares no one; even the celebrities and stars. Pamela Anderson, a Bay Watch star, was diagnosed with Hepatitis C and disclosed in March 2002 that she had the disease and claimed that she contracted the disease from her previous husband Tommy Lee but reported that her body is responding to the hepatitis c treatment she is currently on.

Hepatitis C is a serious liver disease that affects millions of people. To date more than 180 million people are infected with Hepatitis C Virus according to the World Health Organization (WHO) with numbers increasing every year (around 3 to 4 million infected per year) and more than 3 quarters of those currently infected will develop chronic liver disease (chronic hepatitis). Moreover, WHO stated that the disease is " responsible for 50–76% of all liver cancer cases, and two thirds of all liver transplants in the developed world"

Too bad there is no existing vaccine to prevent Hepatitis C infection. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), there are different ways by which a person can be infected with hepatitis c virus:

You ever injected street drugs, as the needles and/or other drug "works" used to prepare or inject the drug(s) may have had someone else's blood that contained HCV on them.
You received blood, blood products, or solid organs from a donor whose blood contained HCV.
You were ever on long-term kidney dialysis as you may have unknowingly shared supplies/equipment that had someone else's blood on them.
You were ever a healthcare worker and had frequent contact with blood on the job, especially accidental needlesticks.
Your mother had hepatitis C at the time she gave birth to you. During the birth her blood may have gotten into your body.
You ever had sex with a person infected with HCV.
You lived with someone who was infected with HCV and shared items such as razors or toothbrushes that might have had his/her blood on them.

Hello!!

2007-09-22T18:33:00.000-07:00

Wow! Its been a long time I started visiting my blog again. Sorry for not updating. I just had a VERY BUSY life back in June and now I started to get over of everything that kept me busy for almost two quarters of this year. And I finally can say that I am now happy. :) Happy for all the good and bad experiences I had and I am proud that I was able to surpass all of them! I feel that I am a winner! Winner in my own right hehehe. :) With almost all people I know around committing suicide, I must say that I still realize the beauty of life and still positive about the future despite of all the pain I have been experiencing.

Perhaps, the secret to living well is appreciating what you have and considers that everything that is happening to us is just temporary, and its up to us if we will we use them to make us better individuals or will destroy us.

Life is about choices, I must say. Its all about decisions. Of course, there is no perfect decisions for you have to juggle all factors that affects your decision making. If you failed as a result of your decisions, then live with it and move on. Devise another plan and work on it. :) No one has done it perfectly smooth the first time. And if they did, they are lucky but that doesn't mean you are not good enough.

Live by faith and passion. That makes life meaningful. Its about finding meaning to your existence and how you appreciate all the people surrounding you and looking forward to making all your dreams come true. Kaya dapag lagi tayong happy! No one's gonna make you happy.

Sabi nga nang kaibigan kong si Roda, "Wag nating idepende sa iba ang kasiyahan natin. Kung di tayo mapasaya ng ibang tao, at least ibigay natin sa ating sarili ang kasiyahang hinahanap natin." Makes sense di ba? Tama nga ang tatay ko (kahit lagi kaming nag aaway hehe). Sabi kasi nya, "everybody has their own share". We may notice it pero people surrounding us inspires us everyday and in turn makes us better individuals. =)

Masaya nako and I can now say that I am ready to take on another challenging roles in life again. :) Go Jules!

Nanotechnology/Nanoscience: Way towards Creating a Cure for Hepatitis B and other Viral Infections

2007-06-13T21:41:00.000-07:00

Nanotechnology has been tagged as one of the emerging science owed to the fact that its processes and instrumentation originates to existing sciences and its creation was made out of the need of the scientific community to come up with instrumentation and knowledge base that would address most of the processes that is beyond the scope of one science; or needs the help of another related science to aid its completion.

Nanoscience and nanotechnology are just some of the hot sciences today and these could be one of the key to some of intriguing challenges in the field of medicine and material science and engineering.

The manipulation of minute agents and how these particles will interact with structures smaller than that of viruses is a dream that was made possible by the nanoscience. Scientists are beginning to speculate that the next 20 years be the birth of powerful sciences that will provide solutions to most of the medical health problems plaguing humans today.

Current the scientific community is exploring nanotechnology in the development of viricides (nanoviricides) that destroys viruses and prevent their injurious activity to a specific cell type.

The future looks exciting to this science and I just hope that it will accelerate the development of therapeautical agents that will finally provide a cure to Hepatitis and other viral diseases.

Please visit the following website for more information.

Nanotechnow.Com
Businesswire.com

3 Reported Death in Vietnam allegedly due to Hepa B Vaccine

2007-05-22T12:34:00.000-07:00

The recent death of three children in Vietnam is probably one of the reason why some parents are hesitant to some immunization programs conducted by governments around the globe.

Breaking the patent on some drugs and vaccines sometimes present dangers to communities and countries as a whole because the manufacture method is sometimes being compromised to the point that a little tweak in the manufacture process may cause impurities and ultimately cause health dangers to recepients. The use and manufacture of South Korean LG Hepa B Vaccine (Euvax B) has been stopped worldwide which is currently the vaccine brand is in use in 24 countries to date.

The recent articles below provides information about the disease. discusses.

www.vaccinerx.com
vietnamnews

HIV/AIDS VACCINE

2007-05-04T20:55:00.000-07:00

Wondering how the world should be like without AIDS? It can never be more enjoyable for millions of people who currently are suffering from HIV/AIDS all over the world. According to the International AIDS Vaccine Initiative, there are currently over 39 million people living with HIV worldwide and more than 2.8 million lives has been lost due to this debilitating disease. The need for a vaccine is currently one of the top priority in both developing and developed countries around the planet.

Click here to continue...

Abbott, Thailand and more...

2007-05-04T17:57:00.000-07:00

A call from HIV/AIDS activists in more than 20 countries to boycott Abbot Laboratories drug products with regard to the treatment it is giving Thailand due to its recent provision on compulsory license on some HIV/AIDS drugs like Kaletra.

Thailand issued compulsory licenses on some drugs from heart disease to HIV/AIDS-related diseases and infection in order to help local patients who are in such condition. Thailand carries one of the biggest health burden in HIV/AIDS-related cases in the world.

Abbot who is an exclusive manufacturer of these popular anti-retroviraldrugs and was alleged to have been engaging in some sort of abusive pricing which is forcing a lot of countries to issue compulsory licenses and break patent on drugs that are currently registered with these big pharmaceutical companies.

While I think that this is harmful to Abbot side and beneficial to the government and people who uses it, it is sometimes best for these pharmaceutical companies to rethink and reconsider the prices theydictate to the market and to the general public. Monopoly seems to be the biggest problem and capitalism is becoming fatal.

Sometimes, before I go to sleep, money really makes the world go round....

More information at the following sites:

Reuters
TheStar.com

Visit the following blogsites for more health-related articles:

http://juliusbio.blogspot.com/
http://hivaidsresourcecenter.blogspot.com/
http://juliusbio.wordpress.com/
http://360.yahoo.com/julesyuri06

Accelerated Hepa B vaccine

2007-04-15T21:22:00.000-07:00

www.intravene.net
Twinrix Vaccine

I just recently got some information from the Hepatitis B Information through email about an accelerated Hepatitis B Vaccine specially designed for unvaccinated individuals who are travelling abroad where the disease Hepatitis B is endemic (prevalent).

Please read on the information below. More information is available at Hepatitis B Foundation website.

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FAQ: New Accelerated Twinrix Dosing Schedule Approved

Q: I am traveling internationally in one month. Is there still enough time for me to be vaccinated against hepatitis A and B?

A: Yes! The FDA recently approved an accelerated dosing schedule for adults with Twinrix, the only hepatitis A and hepatitis B combination vaccine available in the U.S. With the accelerated schedule, you will get all three doses of the vaccine within one month, instead of the usual six months. The approved accelerated schedule is at 0, 7, and 21-30 days, with a booster at 12 months. This schedule is beneficial to international travelers, health care workers, emergency responders, individuals diagnosed with a sexually transmitted disease, and other at-risk adults.

Visit the following blogsites for more health-related articles:

http://hivaidsresourcecenter.blogspot.com/
http://healthlines.blogspot.com/
http://juliusbio.wordpress.com/
http://360.yahoo.com/julesyuri06

Drug Treatments and Counselling for HIV/AIDS Patients

2007-04-03T21:35:00.000-07:00

HIV Virus Replicating in T Cell

Please visit the following blogsites to read the content of the original post.

hivaidsresourcecenter
healthlines.blogspot.com

Hepa A and Hepa B Twin Vaccination Program

2007-04-02T19:27:00.000-07:00

picture from: www.2.blogger
Vaccine

GlaxoSmithKline, a leading international pharmaceutical firm has worked on producing vaccine combination that target several related disease organisms.

Just recently, The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Twinrix, GSK's dual combination vaccine that is aimed to produce immunity tohepatitis a and hepatitis b.

Perhaps, this is the very first vaccine that targets a combination of disease organisms (especially, virus that attacks the liver). This is indeed a breakthrough in the field of medical engineering and immunology.

For most people, they are unaware that both of these serious disease are vaccine -preventable. The fact that a lot of people are suffering from the diseases is because they are fully unaware that safe vaccines are available that will protect them and their lovedones during their lifetime.

For the Philippines, access to anti-hepatitis vaccines is somehow non-existent since even affordable medicines are hard to find. I just hope that our today's senatoriables will give their focus more on the importance of public health and safety. May God bless our country.

Visit the following blogsites for more health-related articles:

http://hivaidsresourcecenter.blogspot.com/
http://healthlines.blogspot.com/
http://juliusbio.wordpress.com/
http://360.yahoo.com/julesyuri06

Germany Produces Anti-Cervical Cancer Vaccine

2007-03-28T20:20:00.001-07:00

I just thought that this might be an interesting article to read for you regarding since a lot of women and men are infected with this virus. Read on. Let us be responsible and protect one another...

Healthlines.blogspot.com

Bitter Gourd: Treatment and Possible Cure for Hepatitis, Diabetes, Cancer and HIV/AIDS

2007-03-16T19:34:00.000-07:00

Momordica charantia L. Amorgoso
also: karela; bitter melon; ampalaya

There has been a lof of information regarding bitter gourd or commonly known locally as "ampalaya'' regarding its wonderful medicinal effects.

Chemicals contained in bitter gourd such as ''momordin'' acts as a vital anticancer and antiviral chemical. In one study, it was even found out that the chemical inhibits the development and activity of Human Immununodeficiency Virus in an infected cells while keeping healthy cells unharmed.

Many indigenous communities of Mexico and Brazil and other South American countries are using bitter gourd as an effective vermicide (dewormer) and in treating minor tumor growth, disease of the gastrointestinal tract and the like.

Alpha- and beta-momorcharin and cucurbitacin-B, are just some of the chemicals found in bitter gourd that prevents cancer and tumor growth in healthy tissues. One chemical drug was developed to mimic the effect of a host of chemicals found in bitter gourd, which was patented and markted under the name MAP-30.

In many diabetic patients, the same chemicals are hypoglycemic in nature. They help pancreas in producing enough insulin and encourage liver to take up excess sugar in the blood. Chemicals such as alkaloids, steroidal saponins (charantins) and a type of peptides are working hand-in-hand in order to produce such effect.

A lot of research is going on in a lot of pharmaceutical companies in order to maximize the medicinal benefits of bitter gourd and its components. The future is exciting for patients suffering diseases that the chemicals that bitter gourd might only provide a cure.

More blog entries at :

http://hivaidsresourcecenter.blogspot.com/
http://healthlines.blogspot.com/
http://juliusbio.wordpress.com/
http://360.yahoo.com/julesyuri06

Hepatitis B: Silent Killer

2007-03-15T20:09:00.001-07:00

I have heard Mark Lim, a medical doctor who died of hepatitis B. He is an asian doctor who died of liver cancer due to hepatitis b at the age of 33. He was a young man, teeming with dreams and aspirations but these were snatched from him due to the deadly disease that afflicts one of 10 Asians today.

Its is sad to know that despite of the many industrial developments known to Asian countries nowadays, health remains to be a number one issue. Our politicians should reform our current laws and mandate a full vaccination of all newborns and those who have not yet received hepatitis b vaccines.

Vaccines save lives! Join the fight agaisnt Hepatitis B and Liver Cancer!

Nokia China in lawsuit over Hepatitis B carrier

2007-03-13T23:17:00.000-07:00

Reading on the MSNBC website regarding the alleged discrimination of Nokia China management in hiring an applicant who was later discovered to have been infected by a hepatitis b virus.

China's amended 2004 law stipulates provision that Hepatitis B, and other similar hepatitis variant carriers, were provided equal rights of employment just like any other healthy individuals, though restricted from other industries related to food and other government offices as stated in official regulations.

With that, I should say that an international law be drafted against this restricting laws that does not help in any way with our friends and families who are infected with this disease. Hepatitis B carriers are, in no way, harmful to the society as a whole, given the proper education and health safety measures installed in a society where they operate. My heart bleeds for these people. I hope that we shall all act to help protect each and everybody else's right as a citizen of the world as everybody deserves to live a better life; not just the privileged few.

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More blog topics at:
http://hivaidsresourcecenter.blogspot.com/
http://healthlines.blogspot.com/
http://juliusbio.wordpress.com/
http://360.yahoo.com/julesyuri06

New Hope for Patients with Advanced Cancer Status

2007-03-13T20:16:00.000-07:00

Reading on the entry of the blogsite below, I found an information that may not be outright related to Hepatitis B and its variants but will surely provide valuable information regarding cancer treatment since, some if not most hepatitis patients suffer from liver cancer. Please read on the entry below for more information.

http://healthlines.blogspot.com/

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More blog entries at these blogs:

http://healthlines.blogspot.com/
http://juliusbio.wordpress.com/
http://360.yahoo.com/julesyuri06

Hepatitis E on the Rise!

2007-03-13T04:54:00.000-07:00

It is a fact that, like any other viruses, hepatitis virus also exists in many forms. Hepatitis E is transmitted much like that of a hepatitis A where it exists in food contaminated with stools with such virus. With that, proper sanitation, the risk of infection will be minimized.

Below is a website that tackles latest information about Hepatitis E and information regarding the development of new vaccines and its level of effectiveness among the test population. Hepatitis E infection is also one cause of death among countries with insufficient budget in health maintenance and disease prevention and cure.

Please visit CECentral for more information.

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View related blog articles below:

http://hivaidsresourcecenter.blogspot.com/
http://healthlines.blogspot.com/
http://juliusbio.wordpress.com/
http://360.yahoo.com/julesyuri06

New Korean Drug for use in Hepa B Disease

2006-11-16T20:51:00.000-08:00

Korean Food and Drug Administration is proud to announce the development of a new Hepa B drug Levovir Capsule; the new drug that will be made available in the market for patients treating hepa B infections.

The drug, developed by Bukwang Pharmaceuticals, Co., was a product of an intensive 10 years of clinical research and drug development which costs about $96 million since day 1.

Levovir Capsule is the first local drug that was approved for the treatment of the above disease. Clevudine, Levovir's main ingredient developed in the United States, is legally sold and developed by Bukwang Pharmaceuticals, Co. Please go to The Korean Herald for more information.

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More Blog Topics at:

http://hivaidsresourcecenter.blogspot.com/
http://healthlines.blogspot.com/

Green Tea improves patients' conditions with Liver Fibrosis

2006-11-15T16:15:00.000-08:00

Reading on HIVandHEpatitis.com website, it shows that patients drinking green tea have shown positive response to slow down the development of liver fibrosis among patients with Hepatitis, especially Hepatitis C.

The American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases' (AASLD) annual meeting on October this year has shown preclinical trial studies and observations which shows how green tea components (polyphenols) can act as anti-fibrotic agent for patients with chronic hepatitis C infection.

The anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties of green tea polyphenols provides a substantial clues that it will soon be explored to extract substances that will help patients with hepatitis infections to avoid liver damage and collapse. More information at HIVandHEpatitis.com.

Adefovir Dipivoxil and Telbivudine effective for HBV Treatment

2006-11-02T03:39:00.000-08:00

The 57th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Liver Diseases (AASLD) found Adefovir Dipivoxil to be more effective in controlling virus reproduction for chronic Hepatitis B patients. Moreover, during the 3 years of research, patient's showed biological tolerance on daily consumption of 10 mg the said drug, showing no other signs of secondary disease resulting to the adverse effects of Adefovir Dipivoxil.

Similarly, Telbivudine, another antiviral drug used for Hepatitis B, was helpful if a patient is switched to Telbivudine viral treatment after 24 weeks of initial Lamivudine use. More readings on docguide.com. (1) (2)

Hepatitis B Viruses Replicating

TYZEKA™ (telbivudine): Newly Approved treatment for Chronic Hepatitis B

2006-10-28T17:24:00.000-07:00

Another chronic Hepatitis B drug treatment option is now out in the market for use among approriate clients. Novartis was so excited to inform the public of the US Food and Drug Admnistration's FDA's approval for the novel drug telbivudine, also known as TYZEKA™.

TYZEKA™ woks on like other antiviral drugs which suppresses the multiplication of Hepa B viruses in the blood which characteristically infects liver cells. Hepatitis B virus damages this organ of the body which leads to scarring (cirrhosis) and eventually liver cancer and death.

This drug was specifically seen to be very effective in inhibiting viral replication within the next 24 weeks of initial treatment while also noted for its decreased side effects. The degree of tolerability may run from mild to moderate compared to the traditional lamivudine (another anti-hepa b virus drug).

Novartis is on among the best pharmaceuticals companies worldwide and is known to develop medicines related to Neuroscience, Infectious Diseases, Ophtalmics, Bone-Arthritis, Oncology, Hematology and Cardiovascular diseases and metabolism, etc.

For more information, please visit Novartis.com.

Hepatitis B: More Infectious than HIV

2006-10-26T11:00:00.000-07:00

It is a fact that hepatitis is 100 times more infectious than HIV and this is the same reason why governments all over the globe are doing all they can to curb the growing numbers of people being infected by Hepatitis B virus and its variants. To date, more than 600,000 million people are infected by Hepatitis B.

Vaccine

More than 60% of the population do not know that hepatitis B is a vaccine-preventable disease. The United States have developed a plan to fully eradicate Hepatitis B through a comprehensive vaccination program to protect all uninfected citizens from this debilitating disease.

A YouGov study indicatest that more than 89% of people are not aware that Hepatitis B can cause liver cancer and cirrhosis. Hepatitis causes cancer by infecting liver cells and disrupt their normal replication and healing process. This disruption, if not thwarted, will lead to lifelong liver cirrhosis (scarring of the liver) and hepatocellular carcinoma (cancer disease of the liver).

Education, medical support, research for cure and treatment and vaccination among all uninfected population are the key to the total eradication of the disease. Let us urge our government to finally set a radical change to our government's priorities in order to help our friends and families who are affected by this highly infectious illness.

Yes for life! Yes for cure! Eradicate Hepatitis B now!

Pennsylvania Biotechnology Center of Bucks County

2006-10-23T19:01:00.000-07:00

I was impressed by the creation of the first Biotechnology Center in the United States at the State of Pennsylvania. This research facility was built with the initiative of the Hepatitis B foundation and Delaware Valley College in order to respond to the growing needs of the country and the world regarding the nature of some diseases, including hepatitis B and ultimately work on their cures.

While I must say that the Philippine government has platforms for creating a proper avenue to properly educate people about the horrors of hepatitis, it seemed not effective owing to lack of funding and poor plan execution among local officials.

The Philippines has a lot of talents which can contribute to the rising need for professionls in the field of pathology and biotechnology but are poorly utilized due to the government's inappropriate focus for its priorities. Sad but true; real brain drain.

Genetically Modified Virus: Cure for Hepatits B

2006-10-18T20:56:00.000-07:00

University of Witwatersrand, a leading university in Johannesburg, South Africa have found a new way to combat the spread of hepatitis B virus from replicating and potentially increasing the susceptibility of the liver for further damage from this infectious disease.

The traditional way of treating hepatitis B infection is through the use of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs). Due to relative cost of these drug treatments, countries, specially those that belong to the Third World, are unable to meet the needed supply of their population that are currently battling this highly infectious virus.

Adenovirus and RNA interference (RNAi)

Viruses normally found inside the human body, adenoviruses, were found to be a very important experimental subjects in the pursuit of a cure for hepatitis B. Adenoviruses are normally found in the human body and do not cause any health injury.

A new technique in genetic engineering, called RNA interference, aims to terminate the usual process of gene replication among virus and cancer cells.

It was found out that the introduction of RNA interference in the genetic library of adenoviruses modifies the virus to become helpful in using combating gene replication among HBV particles living inside liver cells (hepatocytes).

Genetically modified adenoviruses enters the liver cells that are infected with hepatitis B virus and halts their reproductive ability. This in turn debilitates the virus and destroys them along the process.

Sergio Carmona and his colleagues at the University of Witwatersrand in South Africa are spearheading this promising study and hopes to begin the preliminary human trial really soon after a successful mice experimental trial which shows up to 90% hepa b virus clearance in the human blood and the liver cells.

The conference held in Chiba, Japan, 2006 Conference of International Society for Cell & Gene Therapy of Cancer, announces this new hope for a more robust treatment or possible cure for hepatitis B virus.

For more information, please visit SciDev.net. Let's keep our fingers crossed and hope for the best for this will definitely help our families and friends who have loved ones who are infected by this virus.

I am African: A Cause for a Global Fight Against HIV/AIDS

2006-10-16T09:56:00.000-07:00

HIV/AIDS is a worldwide pandemic that deserves attention and action from each and everyone of us. A concerted action using education and correcting behavior that may put you and your lovedones at risk of infection and a means (antiretroviral drugs for example) to fight and prevent the disease from spreading across nations is paramount.

What is HIV/AIDS?

Human Immunodeficiencey Virus (HIV) is a virus that causes Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS only manifest in person with HIV if the immune system of such person completely collapsed to the point that even organisms that would normally not cause serious disease to healthy person may turn out to be life-threatening.

HIV attacks specific whiteblood cell (CD4 +T Cells) that plays a very important role in immunity. The continous death of CD4+ T cells is fast enough before the entire body can even start producing a newer batch of these cells. The special designation in CD4+ would mean that these types of cells contain special receptors to where the HIV virus attach, enters the cell and starts manipulating the cell's reprodutive machinery (taking control of its DNA reproduction process).

When the number of CD4 +T Cells falls to a specific level, the infected individual may start exhibiting some of the symptoms of AIDS.

Current Statistics

There are currently more than 40 million documented cases of people living with HIV/AIDS according to a 2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic. The number is a rough estimate of the number of people who have previously been tested and marked positive for the existence of the infectious virus in their body.

Due to the stigma brought about by the media exposure of HIV/AIDS, more and more people refuses to get tested thus making the global fight for HIV/AIDS, not completely successful.

I am African

Keep a Child Alive foundation is a global fight to help Africa curb the increasing number of HIV/AIDS orphans and help fund the budget that would be needed for the production of enough Antiretroviral drugs to treat the population infected with HIV and people exhibiting AIDS symptoms.

Let's act together and be part of this cause! A cause for treatment and cure!

Julius

I am African: Keep A Child Alive
How does HIV cause AIDS?

Razorblades and Toothbrushes May Transmit Hepatitis B Virus

2006-10-13T20:27:00.000-07:00

The 46th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy probed on the possibility of Hepatitis B infection with the use of equipments that can come in contact with blood such as razorblades, toothbrushes, etc.

In a surveillance research conducted on barber shops in Turkey, it was found out that "hepatitis B DNA was detected on almost 8% of the razors collected". This fact highlighted another possibility of transmission route of Hepatitis B and other strains.

Furthermore, the conference stresses "the importance of not sharing household objects such as razors toothbrushes, and nail clippers, as this can create the possibility for transmission (Can Razor Blades Transmit Hepatitis B Virus?: HIVandHepatitis.com)

I am particulary wary on the possibility of HBV transmission in the Philippines for a lot of local barber shops and salons offering haircut and manicure/pedicure services are not aware on the health dangers that used razorblades can bring to all of their customers. I just hope that local officials would make the initial move to draft a resolution or city ordinance to stop the practice of using used razorblades and sterilize manicure/pedicure articles before using them to their customers.

Below are just some of the most preventive measures against Hepatitis B infection which are taken from Hepatitis B Organization.

Hepatitis B is a vaccine-preventable disease. There is a safe and effective vaccine to protect infants, children and adults from hepatitis B. Billions of doses have been given worldwide. Learn more.

All sex partners, family and close household members of a chronically infected person should be screened and vaccinated. Reassure patients and families that hepatitis B is not casually transmitted - it is spread through blood, not by coughing, sneezing, hugging or sharing food.

Additional Prevention Measures
In addition to vaccination, there are other simple ways to help stop the spread of hepatitis B:

Wash your hands thoroughly after any potential exposure

Practice safe sex with all partners

Avoid direct contact with blood and bodily fluids

Clean up blood spills with a fresh diluted bleach solution

Cover all cuts carefully

Avoid sharing sharp items such as razors, nail clippers, toothbrushes, and earrings or body rings

Discard sanitary napkins and tampons into plastic bags

Avoid illegal street drugs (injecting, inhaling, snorting, popping pills)

Do not donate blood or body organs

Make sure new, sterile needles are used for ear or body piercing, tattoos, and acupuncture

For more information, please visit the following refrence websites:

HIVandHepatitis.com
Hepatitis B Organization

Julius

Antiretroviral Therapy for Patients with HIV-HBV Coinfection

2006-10-12T17:05:00.000-07:00

It was shown that people who have Hepatitis B virus-HIV (HBV-HIV) coinfection have a greater chances of developing advanced liver disease than those who only have monoinfections. Also, it was shown that HIV patients who have acuted HBV infection have lesser chances of recovery, that is, removing the virus from the system.

In an excerpt from HIVandHepatitis.com , it reads:

HIV-infected adults with acute HBV infection are less likely to eliminate the virus compared with HIV negative adults (23% vs 4%). Without hepatitis B treatment, HIV-HBV coinfected patients have higher HBV DNA levels and a longer duration of viremia, but may have lower transaminase (liver enzyme) levels compared with HBV monoinfected patients. HIV-HBV coinfected individuals also have a higher rate of liver-related morbidity than persons with either virus alone.

What makes transaminase important in the determination of liver infection along with its health is discussed briefly in the article in Wikipedia below:

The biochemical hub of the body, the liver, has a variety of transaminases to synthesize and break down amino acids and to interconvert energy storage molecules. The concentrations of these in the serum (the non-cellular portion of blood) are normally low. However, if the liver is damaged, the hepatocyte cell membrane becomes more permeable and some of the enzymes leak out into the blood stream.

While it is very important that both infection should be treated accordingly, the type of treatment should be based on individual need and current health situation. Symptoms that are currently manifesting should be treated first before looking into other possible factors that as, I quote,

* the need for combination antiretroviral therapy for HIV
* severity of liver disease
* likelihood of treatment response, and
* potential adverse events

For more information, please click on the Post Title Link to lead you to the website source. Thank you.

Julius

Hepatitis B as a precondiction for Education, Employment , etc.

2006-10-11T06:20:00.000-07:00

In a news just recently posted over the web, a school in China has discrimiated at least 19 students for the sole reason of carrying Hepatitis B virus. Urumqi, Xinjiang's capital, issued a city ordinance regarding banning the provision of education to students (and other people) who are afflicted by the disease.

Although the reason for banning the students from attenting school is to protect the other student's interest, it is still not universally acceptable to use existing Hepa B infection as a precondition for receiving education and employment. This is something that every government all over the globe should be focusing on and start drafting laws that should stop the
discrimatory pratice of banning individuals who are infected with this virus.

Hepatitis B virus is an infectious virus that is spread through the following activities:

Sexual contact
Sharing needles among drug users
From mother to baby during childbirth
Exposure to sharp objects that are used in Hepa B lab testing, etc.

The virus is not spread through normal day-to-day or casual activities like sharing eating and drinking utensils, sneezing, shaking hands, hugging, etc.

The effective prevention against Hepatitis B is abstinence, loyalty to your sexual partner and yet the most effective is vaccination.

Vaccination provides a high level of protection for people who are well exposed to the virus. It prevents them from developing serious liver complications out of the infection from it. People from the risk group (those who have a greater chances of acquiring the disease due to exposure) are required to receive vaccination.

For more information about vaccination, please visit the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Julius

Lower Blood Cholesterol for HIV patients with HCV co-infection

2006-10-09T05:42:00.000-07:00

In the 46th Annual Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy it has been discussed that there is a relationship between reduced possibility of hyperlipidaemia (increased cholesterol) for HIV patients who are coinfected with hepatitis C virus due to regular intake of Anti-retroviral drugs (ART).

Among the 1034 patients who took part in the study, where 729 are HIV infected and 305 are co-infected with HCV and are taking interteron anti-retroviral drug, there was significantly lesser possibility of elevated cholesterol levels in blood and are on a manageable level. HIV patients and are not co-infected by HCV and are not taking ART are seen to have elevated cholesterol level.

For more information please visit AIDSMap for additional information on HIV antiretroviral-related hyperlipidaemia is mitigated by HCV co-infection.

Julius

Hepatitis: A Liver to Live

2006-10-07T16:17:00.000-07:00

Perhaps, the liver is considered to be one of the most important organ of the body. Its primary role is connected to digestion or the metabolism of nutrients taken from food. The hormonal secretions of the liver are enough to support most of more than 500 life functions that this wonderful organ can accomplish.

Below are just some of the most important functions of the Liver organ:

1. Secretes bile, a substance that helps dissolve fats
2. Stores and secretest glycogen, a sugar molecule stored being stored by the liver.
3. Activates enzymes in order for them to perform their various chemical functions
4. Detoxification of hamrful material that is present in the blood.
5. Helps in the creation or synthesis of blood clotting factors, a very important plasma protein, etc.

The liver can lose its optimal effectiveness in performing these critical functions if it is abused and not taken care of properly. Eating foods that are not healthy and contains toxic substances and coloring could damage the liver.

Drinking and smoking are also factors in irriversible liver destruction. Diseases of the liver, including bacterial and viral hepatitis can also cause the liver to breakdown and lose some of its vital functions.

Individuals afflicted with Hepatitis, especially Hepatitis B virus, are advised to take regular checkups in order know the condition of the liver and provide recommendations on the type of medication they need to take.

Maximum surveillance on the number of people afflicted and assessment on the progression of the hepatitis B virus in the body is particularly important so that the public will be educated on how they can protect themselves and take care of their health and take treatments that will help them slow down the virus and eliminate some of its harsh physical consequences.

For more information, please visit The American Liver Foundation's at www.liverfoundation.org.
Packet online also provides website that can help you find a liver specialist in your area. Liver specliaists at Princeton Healthcare System carries certifications in diagnosing and providing treatment for patients who are afflicted with Hepatitis virus and its strains. Please visit www.princetonhcs.org for more information or cal them directly at (888) 742-7496.

Julius

Asians Badly Hit By Hepatitis B

2006-10-06T18:43:00.000-07:00

People in Asia are the ones who are most affected by the pandemic Hepatitis B infection. In china alone, around 300,000 Chinese people are being infected every year by this deadly liver virus.

In a recent forum conducted by some members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering in China have gathered in order to debate on the most effective preventive measures against the disease and possible treatment to be given to those who are already infected.

It is estimated that more than 120 million Chinese citizens are infected with this deadly virus and more and more people are being infected at a rate of 9.7 percent each year. The two societies collaborating in this effort are expecting the rate to decrease by 2 to 3 percent by the year 2010.

For more information, please click visit the news here.

Julius

World Hepatitis Awareness Day 2006

2006-10-06T05:20:00.000-07:00

October 1 was marked as the World Hepatitis Awareness Day 2006 and it is during this time that hepatitis patient association worldwide promotes awareness to the growing population of individuas who are infected by this deadly disease.

It is but true that more than 600 million people worldwide are infected by the disease and more and more people are not aware that they are infected which may possibly reach 1.2 Billion. Although the call for an international venture on the hepatitis research has been successful, the development of a more potent drugs for the treatment and possibly, cure for hepatitis has not yet been done.

There are possibly a lot of hindrances to the development of an effective plan towards the eradication of hepatitis around the globe and some are I have listed below:

1. Economic Condition. Lack of Funding for the education and provision of treatment for people who have Hepatitis B in a certain country or area,
2. Personal Objection towars Vaccines. Some are not convinced on the effectiveness of hepatitis vaccines that are available for use.
3. Ineffective Program Planning of Governments Worldwide

Today is hightime for everybody to know what hepatitis is and how you can prevent yourself from being infected and how you can possibly protect your loved ones if already infected with the disease.

Vaccine still remans the best preventive measures agaisnt hepatitis infection although there are no availble vacciens for some species of hepatitis.

If you would like to know more information about hepatitis and ways on how you can prevent yourself from being infected, please visit the following websites below.

Hepatitis: Centers for Disease Control
Hepatitis: World Health Organization

Julius

2006-02-04T11:49:00.000-08:00

Konjugation Galore!

Hallo! The German class last Saturday was AWESOME! It was my first day with Frau Nerri (The teacher/Die Lehrerin). I was originally scheduled to take the Intro Deutsch in another class but chose to be with Frau Nerri instead.

Nevertheless, I joined the class which is on its 3rd meeting! I was a bit excited for she speaks fluently in German/Deutsch. One thing that surprised me was that, she seldoms speaks in English, instead, she monopolizes the discussion with phrases and statements in naked German! :-D

At first, she entered the room and bombarded us with questions about our assignments (at least I know what she was talking about back then haha!) but when she started asking individually, I was trembling and can't even speak even using the local dialect!

Fortunately, I was able to cope up fast with the help of my classmates and Frau Nerri herself. She was good but she left us something to do at home! Konjugation galore! Among the basic statements I learned are listed below. :-) Enjoy!

Communication in the classroom

Asking About he Meaning of the Word

Was heisßt "book" auf Deutsch? + Das Buch
Was bedeutet "Jahr"? + Auf Englisch "year".

Asking about the pronunciation of a word

Wie spricht man das?

Asking for the spelling of a word?

Wie schreibt man das?

Asking if something is correct?

Ist das richtig?
Stimmt das?

Saying you don't know something

Tut mir Leid, ich weiß es nicht.

Saying you do not understand something

Ich verstehe nicht.

Asking someone to repeat something

Wie bitte?

Asking someone to speak more slowly

Sprechen Sie bitte langsamer.

Die Lehrerin sagt...

Bitte wiederholen Sie.
Bitte lesen Sie.
Hören Sie bitte zu.
Buchstabieren Sie das bitte.
Lauter bitte.
Stehen Sie bitte auf.
Schreiben Sie das bitte an die Tafel.
Öffen Sie bitte das Buch auf Seite...
Noch mal bitte.

-------------

Hehehe. Kind of difficult to read but the pronunciation is quite straightforward. They are pronounced as they are spelled most of the time. That's what I like about the German language. Thanks for dropping by! Bis zum nächsten mal!

Julius

Beat That! All German Nouns are Capitalised and have Gender!

2006-02-02T08:50:00.000-08:00

Although I have been reading German text for quite a while, its just recently that I have noticed that some words are always capitalized and some are not. Searching for the part of speech to which they belong, I realized that all of them are NOUNS! (Stupid me hehe). In the same instance, I have also discovered that all German nouns have gender (German like other European languages is a sexist language ) I have been trying to get formal studies with this language though but never got the time to do so.

But then I braved the challenges of my busy work schedules (graveyard huh), and started traveling to and from Manila (Quezon City) just to attend regular Saturday Extramural classes in German! "All for the love of language," as my bestfriend Roda always say. =)

Although some parts of Switzerland ("Schweiz" in German) are German-speakers, they do not employ this standard rule by which German people have constantly praticed in their ortography. Hmm...

Well, I have collected some samples in here and you may want read them below for your personal information hehe. In the words of Hyde Flippo (regular contributor of German.about.com):

German nouns (a person, place or thing, Substantive) are very easy to spot: they always begin with a CAPITAL letter! German is the only world language that capitalizes all nouns. Although there has been debate over the years about doing away with this rather inefficient practice, for now ALL German nouns must begin with a capital letter. Whether we are talking about a simple tree (ein Baum) or Deutsche Bank, any noun is capitalized in German.

The other important thing for English-speakers to understand about German nouns is the matter of gender. Just as we learned about the pronouns in the previous lesson, German nouns parallel he, she and it (er, sie, es) by also being masculine (der - DARE), feminine (die - DEE) or neuter (das - DAHSS). We can see the parallel very clearly by the ending letters for each article/pronoun: der = er, die = sie, das = es.

Der, die and das are the same as "the" in English – the DEFINITE ARTICLE. In German the definite article is much more important than it is in English. For one thing, it is used more often. In English we might say: "Nature is wonderful." In German, the article would be also be included: "Die Natur ist wunderschön." So knowing which article to use becomes even more important!

Whew! Hail to that not-so-amazing-discovery hehe. =) There are more to come as I take on the journey to the wonderful world of German language! Hmm... I am considering Russian as well in the next cycle. =)

Julius

Drinking joins smoking as cancer risk

2006-02-02T08:34:00.000-08:00

THE DANGERS OF ALCOHOL AND CIGARETTE SMOKE

Its pretty interesting to note that most people who are in the business of providing care to the ailing population are the first one who violates what they preach. =( I just got this information from and have thought of our family doctor who is a REAL cigarette addict. I must remind you people that smoking and drinking is something worst which you can do to your body. (I drink a lot hehe) but then I don't smoke lest allergies will start erupting and manifesting on my already devastated skin! =) Read on the interesting news from CNN below. Enjoy!

Julius

-----

LONDON, England (Reuters) -- Along with smoking and chronic infections, alcohol consumption is an important cause of several types of cancer, researchers said on Monday.

Excessive drinking raises the risk of cancer of the mouth, larynx, oesophagus, liver, colon and breast. It may also be linked with cancer of the pancreas and lung.

"Alcohol is underestimated as a cause of cancer in many parts of the world," said Dr Paolo Boffetta of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in Lyon, France.

"A sizeable proportion of cancer today is due to alcohol intake and this is increasing in many regions, particularly in east Asia and eastern Europe," he added in an interview.

Boffetta and Mia Hashibe, who reviewed research into the link between alcohol and cancer, found the more alcohol consumed, the higher the risk of developing cancer.

But they advised people to drink moderately, rather than give up alcohol completely, because of its protective benefits against cardiovascular disease.

"Total avoidance of alcohol, although optimum for cancer control, cannot be recommended in terms of broad perspective of public health, in particular in countries with high incidence of cardiovascular disease," Boffetta said in a report in The Lancet Oncology journal.

For more information, please click on the Post Title Link to lead you to the website source. Thank you.

Brokeback Mountain! :)

2006-01-30T10:12:00.001-08:00

This is the true "Boxing Fight of the Century!" :-D

Bolivian president gives teachers half his pay

2006-01-29T11:24:00.000-08:00

Fascinating, indeed! I think our local officials should start thinking about giving part of their salary to the poor and other government workers like the teachers who are working for the betterment of this overlypoliticized country! Dapat nilang gayahin si Evo Morales ng Bolivia! Read on!

Friday, January 27, 2006; Posted: 10:13 p.m. EST (03:13 GMT)

LA PAZ, Bolivia (AP) -- President Evo Morales cut his salary in half and declared no Cabinet minister can collect a higher wage than his own, with the savings to be used to hire more public school teachers.

The move followed a campaign pledge to tackle political corruption and restore honesty to the government of South America's poorest country. But critics called it a propaganda ploy that will do little to help the needy.

Five days into his leftist government, Morales announced Thursday his salary would be $1,875 a month and that his Cabinet would also have their salaries capped at that figure.
"I ask for (the ministers') understanding and efforts to try to meet this demand, not for Evo but for the people," Morales said

Morales' predecessor earned $3,900 a month. The yearly savings of $24,300 is about enough to pay the annual salaries of seven experienced teachers, rent a middle-class apartment or buy a new Ford Focus in Bolivia.

Street protests by teachers, miners and Indians have ousted two of Morales' predecessors since 2003...

For more information, please click on the Post Title Link to lead you to the website source. Thank you.

Warum Nicht! (Why Not!)

2006-01-29T08:54:00.000-08:00

Sphrechen Sie Deutsch?

Hallo! I am now learning German at last! I hope this will be a fruitful one. :) I have listed below some of the most common expression and greetings used by German peeps (taken from German.about.com. Let's take a look and practice!

Everyday Pleasantries

Guten Tag! - Tag! Hello! - Hi!

Grüß Gott! Hello! (southern Germany & Austria)

Grüß dich! Hello! (familiar, informal)

Guten Morgen! - Morgen! Good morning! - Morning!

Guten Abend! Good evening!

Gute Nacht! Good night!

Wie geht es Ihnen? How are you?

Wie geht's? - How are you? (familiar, informal)

Danke, gut. - Fine, thanks.

Sehr gut - Great. Es geht - Okay. So-so.

Nicht so gut. - Not so well.

Auf Wiedersehen. - Good-bye.

Tschüs! - Bye! See you later. (casual)

Requests - Bitten

Was möchten Sie? What would you like?

Ich möchte... I would like...

Darf ich? May I?

Können Sie mir helfen? - Can you help me?

Yes/No - Thanks - You're Welcome

Bitte! - Ja, bitte! - Please! - Yes, please!

Danke! - Thanks! - No thanks!Note: "Danke!" in response to an offer usually means "No thanks!" If you want to indicate a positive response to an offer, say "Bitte!"

Danke schön! - Thank you!

Vielen Dank! - Thanks a lot! - Many thanks!

Bitte schön! - You're welcome! (in response to "Danke schön!")

Nein, danke! - No thanks!

Brain Plasticity: Experiences = Learning

2006-01-24T12:37:00.000-08:00

I just had a great time reading our module in for SCED at UP Open University (UPOU) and read a superinteresting information regarding the workings of the brain, particularly, human brain.

Its true that it has become a widespread belief that the brain stops or limits its ability to change and lessen its reception to information as we age, but the truth of the matter is, our brain changes physiologically and PHYSICALLY as we mature.

This change in physical structure is brought about by experiences which become part of the storehouse of information and in turn, help us in tailoring our action in the future. Current brain research is revolutionizing the wonderful world of Neurology and is providing us with valuable clues as to the limitless capacity of the brain to store information through various learning experiences in our environment.

A statement in the Society for Neuroscience relates the following information:

People who lose their eye-sight do not have to rely on audio novels to fulfill a book obsession. They can learn to read compositions in Braille, a writing composed of raised dots arranged in specific patterns, with their fingertips.

It's one of the benefits of having a plastic brain. That doesn't mean your brain is molded from a high-molecular-weight polymer similar to your toothbrush. It means that the brain is flexible. It compensates for obstacles. It adapts. It adjusts.

Once, researchers believed that only young brains were plastic. They thought that the connections between the brain's neurons developed in the first few years of childhood. Then they became fixed and very hard to change. An enormous amount of animal and human data uncovered in the past two decades, however, confirms that the brain retains its plasticity throughout life

Its fascinating how the brain works and how the brain theoretically store a huge amount of information and still able to receive more as a result of our everyday experiences. This revolutionary concept is another way of saying that learning is a continuous journey and should never stop at any given moment! Galeng! :)

Julius

For more information, please click on the Post Title Link to lead you to the website source. Thank you.

2006-01-21T09:33:00.000-08:00

PICTURE PICTURE!

2006-01-21T09:19:00.000-08:00

On Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory

Hello. I would like to share with you some of the most interesting posts I made in our Interactive Virtual Learning Environment (IVLE) in OU (Open university). The subject was so interesting that no matter how busy I am, I always make it a point that I am able to read the books and modules at least 30 minutes per day, which obviously, translates to a slow progress.
:(

I was reading the modules and was particularly attracted to the idea of Social Cognitive Theory by Albert Bandura. It says there that, "you know more than you show." I am pretty sure this is something that most teachers will be able to relate to for we usually gauge student's cognitive abilities according to how they perform in usual unit test and periodic examinations or pop quizzes.

Surely, all of us are guilty of this practice for it is something that is predictated in the curriculum and a curriculum format that is legitimate for use. Anyways, you will not be able to grade something that is not tangible, will you?

When I was still connected to a teaching institution, I have a student who does not perform well when presented with questions on paper exams, tests, and pop quizzes.

I was a surprised for I have come to talk to him many times about health science topics after an afternoon break and he demonstrates outstanding speaking and superior memory skills.

This lead me to conclude that students who flank written examinations should not be categorically branded as mentally challenged. There might be factors that deters them from performing such as psychological or psychosocial status. Mood swings, and acceptance by the society plays some significant bearing on every student's performance.

Ang dami talagang trabaho ng mga teachers no? Hindi ka lang guro, yaya, or nanay, or guidance councilor - psychologist ka pa! hehe.

Other theories of learning are applicable in different school scenarios and the teacher should be better equipped with tools, materials and experiences to help students cope up with the challenges beset to them as they traverse through the road of intellectual competency.

2006-01-21T08:59:00.000-08:00

Busy as a Bee! Charut! Lolz. :)

Hello Friends! I am sorry if I was not able to post any message in here for the past few weeks. I was sooooooooooo busy. Things in the company these days are getting a bit complicated so I was intoxicated with the huge amount of work I was trying to finish.

I got hooked up on a new hobby of mine which is writing web-articles. Unfortunately, I missed some of my exams in OU (Open University) and possibly flanked them so I need to lie-low on it and start focusing back again. :( I also got sick because of stress so I just decided to quit all those "extras" all at the same time! Charut! lolz. :)

I missed this blog, my home, with my blog friends! Ate Neng, Ate Ann and the whole cast of Walk-About and Ipagpatawad mo Blog! :) Hehe. I hope you are all doing well. You all have a nice day!

Julius

King Kong and Gigantism

2006-01-06T08:56:00.000-08:00

I watched King kong last month and it was nice. :) Kakapagod nga lang panoorin dahil laging me habulan! Hehe.

Although the 25 foot monster in King Kong is somewhat a far-fetched representation of a hominid, the idea that an organism could reach as huge as that is a valid theory in the field of biological science.

An article I read in CNN shows that gigantism is possible for organisms who are especially not confronted with competition among their like or related species. Isolation and apparent lack of competition is key to managing to extend your body size to reach its titanic conformation.

I myself believe in evolution for many of the worlds organisms bear features that looks intermediate among a host of species biologically related to it.

There seems to be a continuum in among the features shared by these species. But we cannot underestimate the existence of a Divine Being who authored all these physical or biological transmogrification. Taray di ba? :)

For more information, please click on the Post Title Link to lead you to the website source. Thank you.

Saved by the Bell?

2006-01-01T06:05:00.000-08:00

Michael the Archangel

I had a awful dream. I was perfectly aware that I was awake by the time the dream commences. It was terrible. I always think there is someone out there who's calling me before I go to sleep. It happens everytime.

Good thing I am working in a graveyard shift and I don't experience all that gloomy features of a usual nightmare. Well, it was 12:30 PM I just got off the bed. I ate the burger I ordered from the canteen and took off a warm bath.

I finished all the above rituals before 2:30 PM and laid my back on my bed. I was practically thinking about nothing else so I don't think there will be enough reason for me to expect a dream. The human mind is really powerful that it creates stories of its own when you are fast asleep.

After a few minutes I heard a knock on the door of my room, I heard that it was my favorite 5 year old nephew who's actually calling me. I was not expecting him to be there for my mom did not even call me to come by. Even so, my landlady would even have to call my attention before she let people to visit in the apartment.

So I managed to get up and even before I could handle the knob to open the door for him, he entered and got near me. I was thinking that he wants to sleep beside me or wants me to cuddle him but much to my surprise, his face assumes a host of different facial characteristics!

His eyes disappared and his mouth widened longitudinally and fangs began developing in his mouth. I was hurt because I realized that he is already biting me with his powerful and sharp fangs.

I struggled and ended up facing him. Before he began attacking me again, i uttered these strange words, " I am calling for michael the archangel to help me. Please protect me against this demon!"

Then, the demon was stunned and he started feeling an awkwardly unexplainable excrutiating pain. Though I may not see the angel himself, I know he was there. I was totally unaware of that name.

I am not religious so I was a bit surprised of me calling that name in front of a demon. Then when i saw him attacking me again, i called on Jesus, I said, "St. Miichael the archangel please protect me and help me vanquish this satanic manifestation, in Jesus name!"

I heard the devil shrieked in pain then he's gone . I was scared... :(

Before I left the house this evening, I prayed. I prayed in my room and asked for help in vanquishing any spirits lurking inside. I locked the door and laid hands on it and prayed that the demons will leave the room and entire house will be free of bad spirits.

I am a Christian but do not practice the ever famous religious rites anymore. I don't go to religious gathering, church services nor the mass for the Catholics. We used to be part of Iglesia ni Cristo but now are excommunicado.

I don't believe in demons, spirits nor the Angels but I now I am beginning to realize that they are true?...I dunno. I am not sure. Before that, I had a dream about a man whose face I cannot see. He warned me about something. He wants me to do something. He said that I will need to do something to help someone. I am not sure...things are vague and I can't seem to comprehend what he was trying to say.

Apparently, I have ignored his message. I am afraid. :( I am afraid. Are demons even true? Is there heaven and hell? Is there a God or an Angel that guides every human and watch all their activities? Whew!Questions that don't seem to have answers... :(

What a bad way to start the new year. :( Hayy....

Julius

2005-12-31T05:40:00.000-08:00

HAPPY NEW YEAR!

Its been a while since I have put written something in here. Its time to make up with the lost times hehe. Tama ba yun? :)

Hey! 2 hours nalang New Year na! its 2006! Its time to contemplate and reminisce all the good , together with the bad things that happened in the year 2005.

Its not important how problematic you were in the year 2005 but its how you were able to win all the complicated situation which in turn determines your readiness to face the coming year!

Cheer up, get a cold one and celebrate life!

Julius

Herz, Status of Philippine Education, etc.

2005-12-04T13:46:00.000-08:00

Haha. Somebody just got me corrected about my blogspot! The Hertz was not spelled correctly but should be written as "Herz". Actually, it was written that way before the actual interface revamp was made. After that, the settings were all gone so I have to type everything again! That's where the error in spelling probably occured. Nalagyan ng T! lolz. Thanks, Ate Lea! (She's from Germany! Ang galing!
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Our current topic in SCED (Science Education) in UP Open University in Los Baños is pretty interesting.

"Are Filipinos generally scientifically literate? Why or why not?"

Ate Lea and I responded with the following answers which I find it interesting to share. Read on. :)

"...I do not think that the the general Filipino population is scientifically literate --yet."

It all begins with having access to education. Although primary and secondary schooling are compulsary with public schools bearing the responsiblity of educating 50+ students in a classroom, the question here is the quality of education they are receiving. Yes, they may remember that they have "Science" as a subject but how much learning really does occur in the classroom? How much of the topics or processes in science do they really undertand and therefore, use outside the confines of the classroom? Are they able to see the relationship between science and the other subjects taught in the Curriculum? Do they see science as an extension of technology and as a means of improving one's quality of life?

We should re-define our meaning of literacy. It should be beyond the description of having the ability to read and write. Literacy should also mean having understood what has been taught, even welcoming the dissection of one's knowledge if it means gaining more.

And sad to say, we have a long way to go to be literate in science (or on any other subject for that matter).

Lea
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This is a very timely question for all of our compatriots in the field of science education!

Perhaps, I would consider our country as a "sleeping giant" in terms of our potential in science competency given our talents evidenced by famous Filipinos in the field of science and technology (much like China) but the only difference is that our country apparently have never learned to wake up!

Maybe our country have forgotten to wake up scientifically after Bagong Lipunan education was dissolved. This is a very sad truth for most of our students (around 95%) are flanking in National Science and Mathematics achievement examinations.

Worst, according to the latest results of examinations conducted among public and private school teachers by the Commission on Higher Education, a measly 9% among the participants in the said exam successfully passed, while the rest did not even manage to get to the 74% mark!

Others' scores are even dwindling on the twilight zone of intellectual uncertainty as to whether they are even qualified to teach or can be perfectly described as "napadaan lang".

Disappointing as it may seem, I still conclude that the Philippines is not phyically ready to embrace the grandeur Science has to give and therefore are not scientifically literate.

There may be some who are exceptionally gifted in in this field but these people are usually product of prestigious private schools here and abroad. It does not reflect the general status of education in our country and does not provide clear distinction so as to confer us the eligibily to be regarded as intelligble individuals in terms of science and technology.

Julius

Of Influenza Viruses and and strains

2005-11-28T11:36:00.000-08:00

I found this information in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website and I think is really very informative. It provides information about the different strains of Influenza virus and their mechanism of infection and genetic modification. Youu may read on the article or visit the website directly. Very enlightening. :) Thanks!

Julius

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Types, Subtypes, and Strains

There are three types of influenza viruses: A, B, and C. Only influenza A viruses are further classified by subtype on the basis of the two main surface glycoproteins hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Influenza A subtypes and B viruses are further classified by strains.

Human Influenza Viruses and Avian Influenza A Viruses

Humans can be infected with influenza types A, B, and C viruses. Subtypes of influenza A that are currently circulating among people worldwide include H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 viruses.

Wild birds are the natural host for all known subtypes of influenza A viruses. Typically, wild birds do not become sick when they are infected with avian influenza A viruses. However, domestic poultry, such as turkeys and chickens, can become very sick and die from avian influenza, and some avian influenza A viruses also can cause serious disease and death in wild birds.

Low Pathogenic versus Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A Viruses

Avian influenza A virus strains are further classified as low pathogenic (LPAI) or highly pathogenic (HPAI) on the basis of specific molecular genetic and pathogenesis criteria that require specific testing. Most avian influenza A viruses are LPAI viruses that are usually associated with mild disease in poultry. In contrast, HPAI viruses can cause severe illness and high mortality in poultry. More recently, some HPAI viruses (e.g., H5N1) have been found to cause no illness in some poultry, such as ducks. LPAI viruses have the potential to evolve into HPAI viruses and this has been documented in some poultry outbreaks. Avian influenza A viruses of the subtypes H5 and H7,including H5N1, H7N7, and H7N3 viruses, have been associated with HPAI, and human infection with these viruses have ranged from mild (H7N3, H7N7) to severe and fatal disease (H7N7, H5N1). Human illness due to infection with LPAI viruses has been documented, including very mild symptoms (e.g., conjunctivitis) to influenza-like illness. Examples of LPAI viruses that have infected humans include H7N7, H9N2, and H7N2.

In general, direct human infection with avian influenza viruses occurs very infrequently, and has been associated with direct contact (e.g., touching) infected sick or dead infected birds (domestic poultry).

How Influenza Viruses Change: Drift and Shift

Influenza viruses are dynamic and are continuously evolving. Influenza viruses can change in two different ways: antigenic drift and antigenic shift. Influenza viruses are changing by antigenic drift all the time, but antigenic shift happens only occasionally. Influenza type A viruses undergo both kinds of changes; influenza type B viruses change only by the more gradual process of antigenic drift.

Antigenic drift refers to small, gradual changes that occur through point mutations in the two genes that contain the genetic material to produce the main surface proteins, hemagglutinin, and neuraminidase. These point mutations occur unpredictably and result in minor changes to these surface proteins. Antigenic drift produces new virus strains that may not be recognized by antibodies to earlier influenza strains. This process works as follows: a person infected with a particular influenza virus strain develops antibody against that strain. As newer virus strains appear, the antibodies against the older strains might not recognize the "newer" virus, and infection with a new strain can occur. This is one of the main reasons why people can become infected with influenza viruses more than one time and why global surveillance is critical in order to monitor the evolution of human influenza virus stains for selection of which strains should be included in the annual production of influenza vaccine. In most years, one or two of the three virus strains in the influenza vaccine are updated to keep up with the changes in the circulating influenza viruses. For this reason, people who want to be immunized against influenza need to be vaccinated every year.

Antigenic shift refers to an abrupt, major change to produce a novel influenza A virus subtype in humans that was not currently circulating among people (see more information below under Influenza Type A and Its Subtypes). Antigenic shift can occur either through direct animal (poultry)-to-human transmission or through mixing of human influenza A and animal influenza A virus genes to create a new human influenza A subtype virus through a process called genetic reassortment. Antigenic shift results in a new human influenza
A subtype. A global influenza pandemic (worldwide spread) may occur if three conditions are met:

A new subtype of influenza A virus is introduced into the human population.
The virus causes serious illness in humans.
The virus can spread easily from person to person in a sustained manner.

Types, Subtypes, and Strains

Influenza Type A and Its Subtypes

Influenza type A viruses can infect people, birds, pigs, horses, and other animals, but wild birds are the natural hosts for these viruses. Influenza type A viruses are divided into subtypes and named on the basis of two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). For example, an “H7N2 virus” designates an influenza A subtype that has an HA 7 protein and an NA 2 protein. Similarly an “H5N1” virus has an HA 5 protein and an NA 1 protein. There are 16 known HA subtypes and 9 known NA subtypes. Many different combinations of HA and NA proteins are possible. Only some influenza A subtypes (i.e., H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2) are currently in general circulation among people. Other subtypes are found most commonly in other animal species. For example, H7N7 and H3N8 viruses cause illness in horses, and H3N8 also has recently been shown to cause illness in dogs.

Only influenza A viruses infect birds, and all known subtypes of influenza A viruses can infect birds. However, there are substantial genetic differences between the influenza A subtypes that typically infect birds and those that infect both people and birds. Three prominent subtypes of the avian influenza A viruses that are known to infect both birds and people are:

Influenza A H5

Nine potential subtypes of H5 are known. H5 infections, such as HPAI H5N1 viruses currently circulating in Asia and Europe, have been documented among humans and sometimes cause severe illness or death.

Influenza A H7

Nine potential subtypes of H7 are known. H7 infection in humans is rare but can occur among persons who have direct contact with infected birds. Symptoms may include conjunctivitis and/or upper respiratory symptoms. H7 viruses have been associated with both LPAI (e.g., H7N2, H7N7) and HPAI (e.g., H7N3, H7N7), and have caused mild to severe and fatal illness in humans.

Influenza A H9

Nine potential subtypes of H9 are known; influenza A H9 has rarely been reported to infect humans. However, this subtype has been documented only in a low pathogenic form.

Influenza Type B

Influenza B viruses are usually found only in humans. Unlike influenza A viruses, these viruses are not classified according to subtype. Influenza B viruses can cause morbidity and mortality among humans, but in general are associated with less severe epidemics than influenza A viruses. Although influenza type B viruses can cause human epidemics, they have not caused pandemics.

Influenza Type C

Influenza type C viruses cause mild illness in humans and do not cause epidemics or pandemics. These viruses are not classified according to subtype.

Strains

Influenza B viruses and subtypes of influenza A virus are further characterized into strains. There are many different strains of influenza B viruses and of influenza A subtypes. New strains of influenza viruses appear and replace older strains. This process occurs through antigenic drift. When a new strain of human influenza virus emerges, antibody protection that may have developed after infection or vaccination with an older strain may not provide protection against the new strain. Therefore, the influenza vaccine is updated on a yearly basis to keep up with the changes in influenza viruses.

Information taken from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Visit their website at www.cdc.gov

Welcome Bio Students!

2005-11-16T02:51:00.000-08:00

I am delighted to teach again! This coming weeks will be one of the busiest time for me since I need to take some "real" adjustments.

Also, I would like to take this opportunity to thank miss Gloria Bondoc-Abrazado for letting me handle her Genetics and Natural Science 2 (Biological Science) Class. Its great to be in the teaching field again. To my students, welcome!

I have been around in the blogger world for quite some time now and enjoying it! You may use this site for updates on our subject matter and read updates on what's hot in the world of biology.

Our blog will particularly provide additional readings in biology which you will find interesting. Many are updates regarding the recent bird flu outbreak and AIDS pandemic.

This will be a very huge adjustment for all of us but, with your cooperation and diligence, surely, we will be able to accomplish something worthwhile at the end of my teaching substitution career and you being students of Science as well.

Let's make the most out of our pagsasama! Cheers!

Julius

Word Power: Epidemic or Pandemic?

2005-11-16T00:14:00.000-08:00

Hello Friends! I am introducing a new segment of our blog which is called WORD POWER!. Whenever you see such posts, it surely tackles about unique words or expressions which you frequently read in medical articles, books and journals.

Being able to understand these words empowers you to read on medical articles without difficulty and keeps you on a competitive edge with other people. So here it is!

Most people tend to interchange the meaning between pandemic and epidemic. These two words are widely used in the medical field, specifially, in the world of microbiology.

With the advent of bird flu virus threat and other related infections, knowing how to distinguish the meaning and the relative differences of the two words will provide you greater advantage and clear understanding on every articles where these words were used.

Entries in Merriam Webster give clear distinctioin between the two words.

Main Entry: 1ep·i·dem·ic

Etymology: French épidémique, from Middle French, from epidemie, n., epidemic, from Late Latin epidemia, from Greek epidEmia visit, epidemic, from epidEmos visiting, epidemic, from epi- + dEmos people -- more at DEMAGOGUE

1 : affecting or tending to affect a disproportionately large number of individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time

Main Entry: 1pan·dem·ic

Etymology: Late Latin pandemus, from Greek pandEmos of all the people, from pan- + dEmos people -- more at DEMAGOGUE

: occurring over a wide geographic area and affecting an exceptionally high proportion of the population

For more information, please click on the Post Title Link to lead you to the website source. Thank you.

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A rather more helpful explanation is available in the site below. It cited the difference between endemi, epidemic and pandemic.

Endemic: a disease that exists permanently in a particular region or population. Malaria is a constant worry in parts of Africa.

Epidemic: An outbreak of disease that attacks many peoples at about the same time and may spread through one or several communities.

Pandemic: When an epidemic spreads throughout the world.

http://www.mansfieldct.org/schools/mms/staff/hand/immnotes.htm

Dictionary.com provides similar explanation:

Pandemic ultimately derives from Greek pandemos, of all the people, from pan-, all + demos, people

Usage: Difference between endemic, epidemic, and pandemic:

Endemic is peculiar to a district or particular locality, or class of persons ("diseases endemic to the tropics"). That which is epidemic is common to, or affecting at the same time, a large number in a community ("an epidemic outbreak of influenza"). Pandemic is epidemic over a wide geographical area.

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See! We are learning! Its nice to know all these stuff for it frees you from reading difficulties! Information is power! :) Keep on reading!

Julius

Pig Flu Virus?

2005-11-15T21:51:00.000-08:00

Aside from birds, pigs are one vital candidate in the transmisson of flu.

(Picture taken from CNN)

Hi Readers!

Researchers are eyeing on another source of flu virus that may pose greater threat to humans more than bird flu due to their more-than-close association with us.

Just recently, researchers are looking at the possibility of the spread of a pig flu virus. Pigs are more biologically similar in function and structure with humans than in birds. This fact provides more reason that a subtle pig flu outbreak may expedite a more deadly contamination with humans and may start a world-wide panick which most of us are totally unprepared.

Viruses differ in their ability to infect animals and plants and may well jump from one organism to another and possibly start a whole new strain. This "species jumping" is caused by the virus' ability to change genetically and add another host of animals in their infection list.

As stated in our previous post, viruses lacks the ability to repair specific genome damage during replication of their genetic material. This apparent biological infirmity confers the organism the ability to undergo dramatic change from one strain to another rendering most organisms unable to cope up with attcks due to lack of preformed defenses (antibodies) .

Likewise, dogs, seals, horses, and ferrets are more prone to these attacks and pose greater theat to the the survival of the human population.

Julius

Why do AIDS and Avian Influenza and other diseases caused by viruses difficult to treat?

2005-11-10T08:34:00.000-08:00

This week protesters marched to US capitol demanding the reauthorization of Ryan White Care Act which aims to promote basic health care services for AIDS victims who lacks basic health care insurance to support medication and other needs to treat the disease.

It is reported that more than 1 million Americans are afflicted with the disease. More and more people are being infected every year and the numbers would continue to rise as people engage in risky behaviors which put them more susceptible to the disease.

Just how the development of AIDS vaccine so hard to device lies on the ever changing form of the virus. Through laboratory test, it was shown that more than one strain of virus is present in an AIDS patient.

This fact provides us with valuable clues to the nature of the AIDS virus and empower us to device treatment which is tailored to how the virus advance on an infected patient.

This works the same way with Avaian Influenza (H5N1) strain. The killer bird flu virus was believed to have already developed the ability to infect humans. Its mutation works in two ways: through antigenic drift and antigenic shift.

Antigenic drift is a small change to the genetic information contained in the virus due to the virus' lack of proofreading ability during genetic replication. Humans are equipped with this competency and allow us to maintain our genetic integrity and discourage unallowable changes.

This small changes creates an invariably small, unique changes to the genetic composition of the virus. This issue is important for it allows us to predict the strain of virus that will more likely to be prevalent in the coming flu season. It will also give local administrators to adjust the compositon of flu vaccines to be given in the coming season.

In contrast, anti-genetic shift works where a virus can interchange or "mate" its genetic composition with another virus species thereby producing a completely different type which in most cases are more virulent (extremely pathogenic or producing severe disease).

The latter definition is of major concern to scientists working on preventing the spread of avian influenza and eventually acquire the necessary mechanism to infect humans through the process enumerated above.

For your additional readings, please visit the following site below:

www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/avian_influenza/en/index.html
www.unaids.org/wad2004/EPIupdate2004_html_en/epi04_00_en.htm

Avian Influenza Menace

2005-10-19T20:53:00.002-07:00

Hey guys, got some scary news. Just recently, more and more countries are getting disturbed about the rapid progression of bird flu virus to different regions of the planet. Most countries in the South Asia and Southeast Europe are plagued by dreaded disease. Romania and Turkey just recently announced the menace brought about by the virus. Chickens were culled and some bird species quarantined. I have read that Europe strickly bans the vaccine innoculation of chickens lest it will pave the way for the transformation of H5N1 virus to a different strain and assume a form which infects humans. Despite these recommendations, some countries in Asia are still in the practice of vaccination which are believed inimical to the current research progress conducted by several countries combating this disease. May God help us all. If you would like to know more infomation about Bird flu virus simply click on the link below which will lead you to a different website containing the information in question. Thanks!

http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/facts.htm
http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_01_15/en/

The Chemistry Behind Invisible Ink

2005-10-10T08:52:00.000-07:00

Hola! Enough of those biological principles! :) I would like to introduce you to the chemistry of the invisible ink and how it works so we will all be familiar with the principles underlying this wonderful Science. Many household products can be used to make this experiment but some that remains popular are lemon juice ink, baking soda and corn starch. Inferring on their pH content, these substances are basic and acidic substances. To the best interest of everybody, the principle behind invisible inks is the process of weakening the molecular bond that holds cellulose together (polysaccharide, glucose molecule) that makes up the paper material. The application of the acidic substances or basic substances weakens the part of the paper where the basic/acidic substance was applied to and made visible when passed over a flame or a hot object or when heat is directly applied to show the damaged part of the paper. I have searched some experiments online which you can use with your students or when making clandestine dates with your girlfriends or boyfriends or sending secret messages. Hehe. Pretty cool, huh! Please use the links below and paste it in your external browser's address field for detailed instructions on how to prepare this cool stuff. :) Enjoy!

Jules

Chemistry of Invisible Ink: http://chemistry.about.com/b/a/207468.htm?nl=1
Lesson Plan on making Invisible Ink: http://www.iit.edu/~smile/ch9602.html

Suicide Grasshoppers Brainwashed by Parasite Worms

2005-09-25T08:38:00.000-07:00

Hi! Wie geht's? It took me almost a month before I was able to post a message again. . Sorry about that. I have had a very busy month for I was finishing several assignments (TMAs-Teacher-Marked Assignment as they call it in UPOU) in my Bio and Chem class. Well, I was able to read something in National Geographic Website about a parasitic hairworm which infects grasshoppers and ultimately persuade it to commit suicide by drowning itself to make it easier for the worm to continue its life cycle particularly completed in water. The hairworm is actually thrice or four times the length of the host (grasshopper) after showing up when the grasshopper is already drowned in water. Once inside the host, the parasitic worm presumably , as the chain of events suggest it, takes over the insect's nervous government and influence the insect to submit itself completely from the worm's viscious scheme. It will eventually drown itself to favor the continuity of the worm's life cycle. What a horrible fate for grasshoppers! I think ascaris will soon develop the same aptitude and influence us into doing something very stupid. :( Grabe. Gusto ko tuloy magpurga. :( Katakot. Plead read on the article below for full text of the article in question. Thanks again!

Jules

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James Owenfor National Geographic News
September 1, 2005

Parasites were the inspiration behind the creature that terrified moviegoers in Alien. Now sci-fi screenwriters may have a new role model—parasitic worms that brainwash their victims.
Scientists say hairworms, which live inside grasshoppers, pump the insects with a cocktail of chemicals that makes them commit suicide by leaping into water. The parasites then swim away from their drowning hosts to continue their life cycle.

A team of French biologists made the discovery after monitoring grasshoppers that became trapped in a swimming pool in southern France.

Postmortems of the grasshoppers suggest that worms triggered the insects' death leaps by sabotaging their central nervous...

For more information, please click on the Post Title Link to lead you to the website source. Thank you.

On Science and Faith

2005-08-27T12:39:00.000-07:00

Bonjour tout le monde! Another week had passed and the posts keep on coming in! What a tiring week that was really! I was so busy preparing my assignment for my Chemistry course at UPOU and still haven't figured out how to finalize it. In fact, I haven't finished reading chapter 7 of the book among the 4 chapters (4 to 7) we were advised to read by our chemistry professor. Well, I visited my virtual classroom and checked on the latest posts for Biology, which also I am currently enrolled, and found that some of my classmates were discussing issues about the stand of Faith in Science which I was quite intrigued. I want to share with you my recent post which details the interplay of Science and Faith in an environment of intellectual discourse in search for truth and how well we can achieve wisdom using the two values mentioned. Enjoy reading!

Julius

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I have always been fascinated by people who has an unrelenting belief about their God, be it classified as paganistic, Islamic or Christian, its truly worth the commendation. I may not be a religious person but definitely I believe in God. Seriously, its not bad to believe in God, neither it is bad not to according to my own belief. I do not usually profess my faith in public unless people are ready to listen which I know is bad. My dad even seconded the motion! (hmpt pero tama sya) :( But that is how "Life" is shaping everybody else's perspective. Life has to adopt to continuing demands for reality and faith. Anything that is regarded as "true" cannot always be regarded as true. The same thing applies to stuff which are classified as untrue. What is just in one society cannot be considered improper to other societies which is why I try to question things and dad don't like it! hahaha. Its like forcing a child to believe that his mother is an alien when he or she see her as a human. Have scientists confirmed the existence of an alien? Why do many people believe them. Everything has to be taken on faith don't you think?

You see, the same reason why people is searching for the truth is because they want to know their God. Science works that way as I see it. People do not do things for nothing. Since the beginning of time, man has endeavored to know the true nature of their own God and that is the same reason they created Science (at the very least). Science is innate to people and so as the process (scientific method) that consolidates the facts that explains a phenomenon. One way to know God is by studying His creation sabi nga ni Stanley White and that is the very same reason why Science operates. Do you even believe that God created the cells? Yes? Fine. Shall we stop from there? I guess not. Humans were endowed of reasoning ability by nature that is why he searched for this answer though he believes there is God though he didn't actually see Him (let's exclude Adam and Eve, that is if they really existed). That is one reason why I do not encouraged my students to engage in religious deliberation inside a Science class. Let's leave that to the Theologians and to subjects which pertain to the very nature of God. How can Science advance if we will never give it a chance?

If we talk about God in a Science class alone, will it advance our understanding on how cells divide and how that same division is manipulated? I think the fact that God created humans with brain is because He wants man to think of his own, and discover how great He is and how compassionate and loving God He is. God never tolerated ignorance that is why He gave us the brain to think. If we question the process that involves Science and stop from there, we will all be like dead humans now for there is no way for Science to advance and reap the vitamins of its fruits as in the case of medicine and other therapeautic machineries. I guess we have to take God on faith and allow Science to progress as a tool to know God through the continued examination of His creation.

An interesting argument about the teacher and the student which I got from a friend is particulary interesting when Science and Faith is viewed as two separate conflicting entities. I always hate forwarded e-mail but this one is an exception! I hope this will serve as a guiding principle to all Science students in order to maintain peace and respect in a world where everybody wants to build their own churches. :( I hope I did not offend anybody with my post. I just want to share. Learning is preserved when everybody respects anybody else's opinion. Should you have contradicting views please do share them in here. I would love to learn from you as well. Peace mga pare at mare?! Fish tayo! ;-)

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Sounds like a good argument.

Subject: Signs vs Science on Sunday

"Let me explain the problem science has with Jesus Christ." The atheist professor of philosophy pauses before his class and then asks one of his new students to stand. "You're a Christian, aren't you, son?" "Yes sir," the student says. "So you believe in God?" "Absolutely." "Is God good?" "Sure! God's good." "Is God all-powerful? Can God do anything?" "Yes." "Are you good or evil?" "The Bible says I'm evil." The professor grins knowingly. "Aha! The Bible!"He considers for a moment. "Here's one for you. Let's say there's a sick person over here and you can cure him. You can do it. Would you help them? Would you try?" "Yes sir, I would." "So you're good ... !" "I wouldn't say that." "But why not say that? You'd help a sick and maimed person if you could. Most of us would if we could. But God doesn't." The student does not answer, so the professor continues. "He doesn't, does he? My brother was a Christian who died of cancer, even though he prayed to Jesus to heal him. How is this Jesus good? Hmmm? Can you answer that one?" The student remains silent. "No, you can't, can you?" the professor says. He takes a sip of water from a glass on his desk to give the student time to relax. "Let's start again, young fella. Is God good?" "Er ... Yes," the student says. "Is Satan good?" The student doesn't hesitate on this one. "No." "Then where does Satan come from?" The student falters. "From ... God ..." "That's right. God made Satan, didn't he? Tell me, son. Is there evil in this world?" "Yes, sir." "Evil's everywhere, isn't it? And God did make everything, correct?" "Yes." "So who created evil?" Again, the student has no answer. "Is there sickness? Immorality? Hatred?Ugliness. All these terrible things, do they exist in this world?" The student squirms on his feet. "Yes." "So who created them?" The student does not answer again, so the professor repeats his question. "Who created them? " There is still no answer. Suddenly the lecturer breaks away to pace in front of the classroom. The class is mesmerized."Tell me," he continues. "Do you believe in Jesus Christ, son?" The student's voice betrays him and cracks."Yes, professor. I do." The old man stops pacing. "Science says you have five senses you use to identify and observe the world around you.Have you ever seen Jesus?" "No sir. I've never seen Him." "Then tell us if you've ever heard your Jesus?" "No, sir. I have not." "Have you ever felt your Jesus, tasted your Jesus or smelt your Jesus? Have you ever had any sensory perception of Jesus Christ, or God for that matter. "No, sir, I'm afraid I haven't." "Yet you still believe in him?" "Yes." "According to the rules of empirical, testable, demonstrable protocol, science says your God doesn't exist. What do you say to that, son?" "Nothing," the student replies. "I only have my faith." "Yes, faith," the professor repeats. "And that is the problem science has with God. There is no evidence, only faith." The student stands quietly for a moment, before asking a question of his own. "Professor, is there such thing as heat?" "Yes," the professor replies. "There's heat." "And is there such a thing as cold?" "Yes, son, there's cold too." "No sir, there isn't." The professor turns to face the student, obviously interested. The room suddenly becomes very quiet. The student begins to explain. "You can have lots of heat, even more heat, super-heat, mega-heat, white heat, a little heat or no heat, but we don't have anything called 'cold'. We can hit 458 degrees below zero, which is no heat, but we can't go any further after that. There is no such thing as cold; otherwise we would be able to go colder than -458 degrees. You see, sir, cold is only a word we use to describe the absence of heat. We cannot measure cold. Heat we can measure in thermal units because heat is energy. Cold is not the opposite of heat, sir, just the absence of it." Silence across the room. A pen drops somewhere in the classroom, sounding like a hammer. "What about darkness, professor. Is there such a thing as darkness?" "Yes," the professor replies without hesitation."What is night if it isn't darkness?" "You're wrong again, sir. Darkness is not something; it is the absence of something. You can have low light, normal light, bright light, flashing light ... but if you have no light constantly you have nothing and it's called darkness, isn't it?That's the meaning we use to define the word. In reality, Darkness isn't.If it were, you would be able to make darkness darker, wouldn't you?" The professor begins to smile at the student in front of him. This will be a good semester. "So what point are you making, young man?" "Yes, professor. My point is, your philosophical premise is flawed to start with and so your conclusion must also be flawed." The professor's face cannot hide his surprise this time. "Flawed? Can you explain how?" "You are working on the premise of duality," the student explains. "You argue that there is life and then there's death; a good God and a bad God. You are viewing the concept of God as something finite, something we can measure. Sir, science can't even explain a thought. It uses electricity and magnetism, but has never seen, much less fully understood either one. To view death as the opposite of life is to be ignorant of the fact that death cannot exist as a substantive thing. Death is not the opposite of life, just the absence of it. "Now tell me, professor. Do you teach your students that they evolved from a monkey?" "If you are referring to the natural evolutionary process, young man, yes, of course I do." "Have you ever observed evolution with your own eyes, sir?" The professor begins to shake his head, still smiling, as he realizes where the argument is going. A very good semester indeed. "Since no one has ever observed the process of evolution at work and cannot even prove that this process is an on-going endeavor, are you not teaching your opinion, sir? Are you now not a scientist, but a preacher?" The class is in uproar. The student remains silent until the commotion has subsided. "To continue the point you were making earlier to the other student, let me give you an example of what I mean?" The student looks around the room. "Is there anyone in the class who has ever seen the professor's brain?" The class breaks out into laughter. "Is there anyone here who has ever heard the professor's brain, felt the professor's brain, touched or smelt the professor's brain? No one appears to have done so. So, according to the established rules of empirical, stable, demonstrable protocol, science says that you have no brain, with all due respect, sir. So if science says you have no brain, how can we trust your lectures, sir?" Now the room is silent. The professor just stares at the student, his face unreadable. Finally, after what seems an eternity, the old man answers. "I guess you'll have to take them on faith."

Synthesis and Targeting of Mitochondrial and Chloroplast Proteins

2005-08-23T16:56:00.000-07:00

Its me again. :) I have been dealing with this research for quite a while, and my readings have confirmed that mitochondria and chloroplasts really share a multitude of similarities be it in their double-membrane structure or the raw materials of their digestion and products of metabolism. Their function and highly specialized membrane structure seems to suggest that these organisms are, at one time of their life, free living species who turned to become endosymbionts to compensate for their structural and functional flaws and live in cahoots with the cell to aid each other for perpetual existence. Please read on the article below for more information about this issue. I will post more articles regarding this topic in the next few days to add to your readings about the two intriguing organelles. Thanks for visiting myBlog and have a nice day!

Julius

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Mitochondria and chloroplasts are surprisingly similar. Both are bounded by two membranes; chloroplasts contain, in addition, an internal membrane compartment — the thylakoids — on which photosynthesis takes place (see Figure 16-34). Both organelles use a proton-motive force and the same type of protein — an F-class ATPase — to synthesize ATP (see Figure 16-2); they also contain similar types of electron-transport proteins. Growth and division of mitochondria and chloroplasts is not coupled to nuclear division. These organelles grow by the incorporation of proteins and lipids, a process that occurs continuously during the interphase period of the cell cycle. As the organelles increase in size, one or more daughters pinch off in a manner similar to the way in which bacterial cells grow and divide. Although the biogenesis of both organelles is similar in many respects, our discussion focuses on mitochondrial biogenesis, about which more is known.

Mitochondria and chloroplasts probably arose by the incorporation of photosynthetic or nonphotosynthetic bacteria into ancestral eukaryotic cells, about 1,500 million years ago, and their subsequent replication in the cytoplasm. Over eons of evolution much of the bacterial DNA in these endosymbionts moved to the nucleus, so that in present-day cells many mitochondrial and chloroplast proteins are imported into the organelles after their synthesis in the cytosol. The mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA found in extant organisms encodes organelle rRNAs and tRNAs but...

References:

Lodish, et.al. "Synthesis and Targeting of Mitochondrial and Chloroplast Proteins". Modern Cell Biology. Fourth EditionW. H. FREEMAN,

Molecular Expressions. “Exploring the World of Optics and Microscopy.” Graphics and Web Programming Team, National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. (diagram for cell organelles).

For more information, please click on the Post Title Link to lead you to the website source. Thank you.

NASA: 10th Planet Discovered

2005-08-21T15:28:00.000-07:00

Here is another article from NASA about the 10th planet recently discovered. In my previous post, I mentioned that scientists named it Sedna but this article from NASA shows that the official name is tentative and will still be decided by the International Astronomical Union. However, for purpose of identification, it was given the temporary name 2003 UB313. Enjoy reading. :)

Julius

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Astronomers have found a new planet in the outer reaches of the solar system.

July 29, 2005: "It's definitely bigger than Pluto." So says Dr. Mike Brown of the California Institute of Technology who announced today the discovery of a new planet in the outer solar system.

The planet, which hasn't been officially named yet, was found by Brown and colleagues using the Samuel Oschin Telescope at Palomar Observatory near San Diego. It is currently about 97 times farther from the sun than Earth, or 97 Astronomical Units (AU). For comparison, Pluto is 40 AU from the sun.

This places the new planet more or less in the Kuiper Belt, a dark realm beyond Neptune where thousands of small icy bodies orbit the sun. The planet appears to be typical of Kuiper Belt objects...

The new planet, circled in white, moves across a field of stars on Oct. 21, 2003. The three photos were taken about 90 minutes apart. Image credit: Samuel Oschin Telescope, Palomar Observatory.

For more information, please click on the Post Title Link to lead you to the website sour

Astronomers claim discovery of solar system's 10th planet

2005-08-21T14:54:00.000-07:00

Here it is guys! The 10th planet! Not sure though. :-( Well, its worth the information to be given to everybody especially to students and spark their dwindling curiosity for Science. :( I will post more of this info. This is an article I got from CNN. Hopefully, if Pluto, which is believed to be part of Kuiper Belt, is demoted as a planet and Sedna confirmed to be a real planet, Sedna will replace Pluto as the 9th planet. Recently, I read on Discover Magazine that scientists are eyeing on 2 more planets, named planet x and y. Expect more posts regarding this subject on the days to come. Enjoy this article for the meantime. :) Read on!

Julius

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NASA: An artist's rendition shows the newly discovered planet-like object, dubbed "Sedna," in relation to other bodies in the Solar System, including Earth and its Moon, Pluto, and Quaoar.

Sunday, July 31, 2005; Posted: 11:31 a.m. EDT (15:31 GMT)

PASADENA, California (CNN) -- Astronomers announced Friday that an object they discovered in the distant reaches of the solar system is large enough to be the 10th planet -- a claim likely to reignite a debate over just how many objects should be called planets.

The object -- 96 times as far from the Earth as the Earth is from the sun, or nearly 9 billion miles away -- was first photographed in October 2003 by astronomers at the California Institute of Technology's Palomar Observatory, north of San Diego.
While researchers say they aren't yet sure of its actual size, they have determined the object is bigger than Pluto...

For more information, please click on the Post Title Link to lead you to the website source. Thank you.

A Second Look to the Nature of Science and a Revisit to the World of the Cell

2005-08-19T16:08:00.000-07:00

Kamusta mga kaibigan! :) Its been months since I created this site but haven't started out a single thread of my own. :( I got loaded with officework and homeworks hehe. :(. Well, I would like to share an interesting TMA (Teacher-Marked Assignment as they call it in UP Open University) in my Biology class which I think you will find interesting as well. Let us explore the intriguing processes of Science, and the immense possibilities it offers us. A revisit to the world of the cell is particularly inspiring for many of the basic functions we associate with organs can be traced back to the cell itself, the fundamental unit of which all of life's characteristics are manifested. Enjoy reading. :)

Julius

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On the Scientific Enterprise

1. What is science? Is science a process? Is it an endpoint? Is it a frame of mind? Is it Science that uncovers or explains? Who creates Science? Who decides what is Science and what is not? What is the scope of Science? How is Science created?

What is Science?

According to JP Siepmann, “Science is the field of study, which attempts to describe and understand the nature of the universe in whole or part.” It’s pretty nice a definition for science J. This definition is very important because it provides us with understanding and viewpoint regarding the nature and scope of science. Science as we know it seeks to explain everything but as we try to unravel the mystery behind everything, the more we get to question things that constitutes a thing until we come to a point that we will realize that everything cannot be explained by science. The scientists’ business is to find answers to the basic phenomena of nature but much of what is happening in nature are not explainable in terms of processes employed by scientists in Science but we do get credit to gaining noble information for the fundamental identity of a certain entity in nature and influence its working on a limited scale.

In a Worldbook Encyclopedia entry, it’s stated that,” Science covers the broad field of knowledge that deals with observed facts and the relationships among those facts. The word science comes from the Latin word scientia, which means knowledge.” If science is knowledge how can we describe subject areas that are categorized under Arts? What makes a certain subject Science and others not? If the prime language of Science is mathematics, ergo it’s the prime knowledge by which Science operates. How can we define subject areas that do not fall under this category? Can we say that subject areas that fall under Humanities have no knowledge at all? Questions like these usually arise because Science is limited to explaining the details of nature and its origin. The very origin of life itself cannot be deduced solely on its workings because the processes that motivate a certain thing to function will never explain its evolution and origin.

In his biology textbook, Neil Campbell expounded further the meaning of Science. He contradicted the idea of providing a concrete definition of science for Science is better understood by observing it than by trying to create a precise definition of it. There is no exact, single statement by which we can define Science for the facts and activities that involve Science far exceed the amount of knowledge of all men put together and their efforts to delineate a satisfactory definition of it through our concerted action.

Mathematics and logic are not based on experimental testing. Yet, they are categorized under Science. But they can be considered part of science because they are essential tools in almost all-scientific study. Mathematics enables scientists to prepare exact statements of their findings and theories and to make numerical predictions about what will happen in the future. Logic provides the basis for all scientific reasoning.1

Science can never be a frame of mind for its processes are purely knowledge-based and follow a logical flow. Science can be someone else’s frame of mind if it is manipulated to suit the current intellectual biases of a certain scientist. Thus, pseudoscience develops.
Most books mentions about the tool by which people propagate Science and most of them points mathematical language as its medium of communication by which Science can be best understood. Just like any other languages, the general population may not be able to speak and at the same time understand it unless a leader (which sometimes is the teacher which can be qualified as a scientist himself) has the courage to teach its semantics and syntax to decipher its very meaning. In this way, a common dialect is used to direct the path of our thinking towards the understanding of Science and more often than not, the so-called hypothetico-deductive approach is most effective as proposed by the famous philosopher Karl Popper. In this method, a true Science can be tested by the use of the approach by which the process of deduction is applied using the hypothesis, an educated guess as we usually call it, synthesized at hand. One strong point of this testing is that, it aims to falsify a certain hypothesis laid out to explain the behavior of a certain natural phenomenon. As mentioned in Dela Paz’s book, a hypothesis, to become effective, should be falsifiable so that it could undergo further testing through experimentation and confirm its validity.

The question concerning the creator of science is humans themselves. Humans created Science because they want to know God. Science was founded to study nature (God's works) to better know God1 as what Stanley White stipulated in one of his articles. The founding fathers of science were deeply religious men. They believed in monotheism, a single creator of the universe. These great men did not live in one place, but were scattered [over all of Europe.] They communicated mostly by letter. These early men of science believed that to better know God, one must study his works.

Our search for knowledge has never ended. People tend to ask questions of all the things happening in his environment. With the many questions left unanswered, curiosity pervades every human mind. From time to time, we see philosophers and scientists laid out their theories: explanations to a not well understood natural phenomenon. They may be accepted momentarily but since experimentation, which is one of the chief tools of Science, time will come that a rather comprehensive and scientifically accurate explanation will replace the pervading theory. When new information is discovered, the conclusion must be looked at again. If the new knowledge gives support, fine, but if not, what looked like an answer must be discarded or modified. That means scientific ideas may change. The changing attitudes and practices in medicine throughout history illustrates that science is a process.3 This is probably brought about by our deductive way of thinking and our ever application of the scientific method, the main tool by which scientists test the validity of a certain scientific supposition. As a learner of science we must keep our foot always on the ground by adhering to the basic rules of science otherwise our experiments will fail, although we can see how some scientists do away with some process in scientific method to better portray how their hunches greatly agrees with an observed phenomenon or fact which is not a healthy way of dealing with science.

2. Prepare a model of the cell. Choose a certain specific cell type and work on uncovering/discovering what is in that cell. Explain your model by answering these questions:

What is the cell? What is its purpose?

The cell has been referred to as the simplest unit that is capable of living and assuming all the functions of a living being. The cell in terms of structure is simple - being the smallest unit that is viewed as a dynamic machine that exhibits all the properties that define a living entity as a whole and complex since each structures that make up the entire cell is composed of complex substances intertwined to produce a highly complex organelle that performs varied task that cannot usually identified in a non-living entity. I recalled one instance in our conversations in the discussion board where the phrase “anything that metabolizes and self-perpetuates” was used by Dr. Dela Paz in his/her book which I responded in a reply below: “The problem with the phrase “any structure that metabolizes and self-perpetuates is that metabolism is not just inclusive (a feature) to living beings alone and self-perpetuation connotes something that a living being can reproduce without the aid of environmental instruments and raw materials. I think that the cell itself does not reproduce or “self-perpetuates” but the individual structures that makes up an entire cell and from the raw materials in the environment…thus, a living being cannot “self-perpetuate” without raw materials from its immediate environment. Therefore, a cell is not an independent, basic structure of all living things since it cannot exist alone. To illustrate this, Mitochondria has its own method of metabolism and so do other organelles. They also have their own genome, metabolizes and double during cell division “self-perpetuate” ika nga ni Dr. Dela Paz. If we are to use “self-perpetuation” as a basis in our definition for the word “life” does that gives mitochondrion a license to survive alone outside a host species? Definitely not although it is “a widely accepted belief that mitochondria and plastids (photosynthetic organelles in plant cells) evolved from bacteria that were engulfed by nucleated ancestral cells. As a relic of this evolutionary past, both types of organelles contain their own genomes, as well as their own biosynthetic machinery for making RNA and organelle proteins? (Molecular Biology of the Cell :Bruce Alberts, et. al.)4 Mahirap talagang humanap ng naaangkop na panaguri sa mga bagay na buhay. But as time goes by we can perhaps formulate a meaning that encompasses and clearly identifies a living being.

Surely, the purpose of the cell is to provide life the necessary mechanism to “self-perpetuate” and differentiate to pave the way for the production of a different living unit more complex and better adapted to its present habitat. The environment provides the necessary raw materials for the organism to metabolize, reproduce, and acquire the appropriate skills to survive. Without it, the organism dies due its failure to learn and to unlearn. This might come intrinsically as an organism cannot learn or unlearn without a brain or a primary motor that regulates all of life’s activities. Nonetheless, the environment provides the indispensable training ground for an organism to acquire the best learning equipment there is to survive.

What are found inside the cell? What are their purposes?

Model of a Eukaryotic Animal Cell

Although the animal cell vary differently from the plant cell in terms of shape, size, function and contents, both types of cells actually share many of the same features and organelles that can be found on both cells.

The animal cell is composed of several organelles that make up the entire unicellular entity and these I have enumerated below.

· Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane/Cell coat

The cell membrane is pictured as a bilayer of phospholipids molecule with embedded protein and enzymes. Its membranes act as a discriminating barrier against unwanted substances that may harm or delimit the ability of the cell to perform its varied functions. Its primary function is to separate the vital chemicals and contents present inside the cell from the outside environment but permit other molecules, which the cell deemed appropriate, to pass through due to its selectively permeable property. Thus, it regulates the amount and type of material that must pass through the membrane of the cell either for cell-to-cell-communication or nutrition.

The cell membrane along with the cell coat promotes intimate contact among cells and plays a very important role in cell-to-cell recognition and thus advancing the organization among the adjacent cells. Some part of a multicellular animal’s body and other unicellular organisms there appears to be thickly distributed (in one part of the cell) cell membrane extensions that plays an important role in increasing the amount of available area (surface area) for additional gateway for the passage of materials into and out of the cell (microvilli). The cell membrane also provides the needed barrier that separates the content of one cell to another and supplies a communication satellite with other cells as in the case of tight junctions, desmosomes and gap junctions.

The cell membrane itself is made of phospholipids bilayer material (tail) and a phosphate group (head). These layer are oriented in such a way that the water loving head portion of the bilayer is situated towards the watery environment (hydrophilic) and its water-fearing portion away from it (hydrophobic) in such a away that the layer will look like a sandwich.

The cell membrane can be perfectly conceptualized using the fluid-mosaic model by Singer and Nicholson. Under this principle, the cell membrane is pictured as a two-dimensional bilipid “fluid” layer where the hydrophobic region of the molecules of the membrane is directed within the layer with integral proteins embedded in it. The word “mosaic” (a surface decoration made by inlaying small pieces of variously colored material to form pictures or patterns-Merriam Webster) is used since majority of the substances found in the bilipid layer are a conglomerate of different molecules such as cholesterol, proteins (integral and peripheral). The picture may represent the material as immobile but theoretically or when observed under a powerful electron microscope, the proteins are lying freely and can move around the sea of molecule created by lipids.

· Nucleus

The nucleus is usually the most prominent organelle in a cell. Most biology books picture it as the center organelle of the cell but most of the time found on one side of the cell under a light microscope. This organelle contains the genetic materials of the cell (DNA) in the form of chromosomes that is conspicuous during cell division. Its content, the nucleoplasm houses another distinct structure, which is called nucleoli, a mass of granular structures in nucleus, not bound by membrane. It is thought to be involved in ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosome precursor function. We can also see pores surrounding the membranous nuclear envelope. This double membrane structure separates the contents of the nucleus to the rest of the cytoplasm. At the tip of each pore, the inner and outer membranes are fused. The pore, which contains proteins, only allows only a specific type of RNA molecule in and out of the nucleus, which has a direct involvement in the production of other types of protein needed by the cell to maintain life.
Inside the nucleus a dark region of chromatin, involved in making ribosomes called nucleolus can be found. This structure is involved in the production of particles called ribosomes, an organelle which functions in protein synthesis.

· Endoplasmic Reticulum

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is an extensive network of tubular channels and sacs whose primary function is to transport materials from the nucleus to the plasma membrane and vice versa. It functions much like that of a highway where products from one end of the highway are transported to the other end or to areas along its path. The amount of visible endoplasmic reticulum in the cell varies from one cell type to another depending on the activity and function of the cell as its presence is attributed to a certain function, which I will discuss later. There are two distinct types of ER, which depends on the presence, or absence of another organelle termed ribosomes, which are the primary sites of protein synthesis. These are discussed in more detail in the next section.

· Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) was so named due to the presence of ribosomes, a protein factory of the cell. They synthesize protein and are transported right into the ER to where they are stuck that is why RER shows to produce protein. It is these same organelles that make the RER unique in a sense that is able to perform protein production from nascent polypeptide.

· Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

Smooth ER, on the other hand, is NOT covered with ribosomes and processes LIPIDS and CARBOHYDRATES. Being devoid of ribosomes does not make SER devoid of its functions as well. In fact, there several of its various functions are critical for the maintenance of life as a whole when the body or the cell itself is confronted with toxins present in small or considerably large amounts in the food we eat. Many of the important functions of the ER are performed by the SER of which are listed below:

· synthesis of steroids in gland cells
· the regulation of calcium levels in muscle cells
· breakdown of toxic substances by liver cells

From the functions enumerated above, we can summarize that most of Smooth ER’s function is fundamentally related to detoxification since the liver and kidney cells are the most prominent organs in the human body in which most Smooth ER can be located. The abundance of smooth ER among liver cells only indicates an active detoxification effect of the said organs. I believe that it is interesting to note that one spectacular function of the smooth ER is its ability to separate or sequester calcium from the cell’s fluid medium, the cytosol. The lumen of the SER, which is the internal cavity of the endoplasmic reticulum, with its powerful calcium-binding particles allows the continuous influx of calcium ions from the cytosol to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. A specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum called sarcoplasmic reticulum is present in muscle cells and performs almost similar functions. An enzyme called CaATPase regulates the process done by this organelle type. From here on, it is but safe to assume that the ability of the muscle cells to regulate the contraction and relaxation of the myofibrils of muscle cell relates to the function of the SER above.

· Golgi Apparatus

Golgi bodies or apparatus are another series of flattened disks, which form channels all throughout the cell. It is manufactured by endoplasmic reticulum and its main function is to modify the contents of the vesicle produced by the endoplasmic reticulum. The Golgi bodies have two distinct faces, one forming a convex area where coalescing vesicles coming from the endoplasmic reticulum discharges its content to the internal content of the Golgi apparatus for modification and further processing (cis face). On the other side, the trans face area, is a place of increased budding activity where the substances modified by the Golgi bodies are packed and transported towards the cell membrane and excreted to the outside of the cell by means of exocytosis, the release of cellular substances (as secretory products) contained in cell vesicles by fusion of the vesicular membrane with the plasma membrane and subsequent release of the contents to the exterior of the cell. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)

· Ribosomes

Among the organelles listed herein, ribosomes are the only one not bounded by a membrane. They are the primary sites of protein integration and synthesis and are found either attached with the endoplasmic reticulum or lying free in the cytoplasm. If lying free in the cytoplasm, they can be found in clusters called polysomes. Proteins produced by free ribosomes

On the next section, I will introduce you to two (aside from the Nucleus) of some of the most popular organelles high school students generally do not forget after finishing elementary biology which I regard to be true. Part of the reason, I can think of is probably due to giving these organelles the distinguishable phrase that describes their function and in turn aids memory retention.

· Lysosomes

Remember the phrase “suicidal pack of the cell”? Does that ring a bell? J Retention is made rapid when we associate an object to a word, phrase or a situation. In all cases, they employ sounds as a tool for communication. I can define this organelle even when sleeping. J Christian de Duve, a cell biologist discovered lysosomes, cell organelles specialized for recycling and waste disposal. The structures vary in size from 0.2 to 2 micrometers in diameter which is quite small. Most books usually dismiss lysosomes as indistinguishable under a microscope partly due to their varied sizes and appearances. Under a high-resolution microscope, most of these organelles appear black due to their high content of hydrolytic enzymes, which in chemistry translates a high-density electron region. Animal cells have numerous number of this organelle but found very seldom in plant cells. Like most eukaryotic organelles, this tiny organelle is membrane-bound. Its membrane is again a lipid bilayer and protects its content. The fact that the organelle is encased in a lipid membrane suggest one thing: more than protecting its content, this organelle protects the cell since its poisonous or digestive content harms the cell in any way or will result to its premature destruction. It has been identified that lysosome’s content can reach pH of 5 and lower making its content very dangerous in some way but beneficial for nutrition and also works in autolysis (self-destruction) during period of environmental stress and brings balance to the ecosystem. That provides the ecosystem the opportunity to replenish itself through the action of these substances. J They usually fuse with vacuoles and eventually digest its content with a cocktail of enzymes (around 40 different enzymes) present in the organelle’s interior bringing about nutrition to the cell in a way. I also believe that this action neutralizes any harmful substances present in the vacuole itself.

· Mitochondria (sing. Mitochondrion)

Another interesting organelle found in an animal cell is the mitochondrion, from the Greek, "mito-" meaning, "thread" and "chondrion" meaning "body” which probably explains the thread-like appearance of these minute structures in the cell. Just like the previous organelle mentioned, this structure is very popular for it was identified for decades using a phrase that depicts its main function: “The powerhouse of the cell.” Overused a phrase as it may seem but this very phrase provides a substantial overview of the organelle’s fundamental function in a living cell.

A mitochondrion is a double-membrane organelle. Their appearance varies from rod to ovoid structures but all of them share the same internal structures. My college cell biology teacher usually note in most of her discussions that “structure always relate to function” which is true in all circumstances as in the case of mitochondria’s internal structure which we will discuss as we go along. The organelle has an outer membrane, and an inner membrane, which envelopes the organelle. The Inner membrane is folded many times along its length to create a region called crista (sing. cristae) where mitochondrial respiration [energy-yielding oxidative (using oxygen) reactions in living matter] occurs. The inner membrane encloses the internal matrix, a region where the most important proteins needed for aerobic (containing oxygen) respiration are situated.

Mitochondria are the powerhouses, energy-generators, or in other words “power sources” of the cell. Whatever you call it, these distinct organelles’ function only boils down to one: to produce energy when the cell needs it. If we are to observe the structure as shown in the cartoon above, we can describe this organelle having a rod shaped appearance, although some of them are ovoid, and are long and having a distinct stripes inside which are found to be an inner membrane folded many times in several areas the length of the inner membrane. Knowing that the actual ATP (energy-currency/molecule produced by mitochondria that powers most of cell’s cytoplasmic activities) production occurs mostly in the inner membrane of the organelle, this structure is vital to the function of mitochondria for it increases the area by which this process occurs thereby increasing the number of by-products of the ATP production activity of the mitochondrion. One interesting fact about mitochondria is that it does have its own sets of DNA not similar to the one contained in the nucleus. Similarly, ribosomes can be found. During cell division, it divides independently and forms offspring mitochondrion, which are distributed and used by the forming cells. In short, it possesses its own genetic apparatus and mitotic (cell-division) behavior.

· Microbodies

It’s hard to identify microbodies based on their appearance due to their diverse shape and sizes. It has been found out that these organelles are found everywhere in a fungal cell. Among the most common microbodies are peroxisomes (found in plants and animals) and glyoxysomes (found only in plants), although lysosomes are sometimes being included in the list of microbodies due to the similarities in basic functionalities with microbodies, that is, digestive properties. Despite of this similarity, the functions of lysosomes far outweigh that of the function of microbodies for they contain numerous enzymes, which aid them from performing varied functions aside from the one, which will be described later.

Microbodies are membrane bound vesicles (a membranous and usually fluid-filled pouch-Merriam-Webster Dictionary) present in cytoplasm in most animal and plant cells. Each cell possesses their unique microbodies and performs quite different function but share similar characteristics: all of them contain valuable enzymes for degradation of toxic macromolecules, which are intermediate products of cellular metabolism. One enzyme worth mentioning is the enzyme catalase present in animal peroxisomes. The role of this enzyme is critical to the survival of the cell due to its neutralizing effect on toxic hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), intermediate by-products of amino acid and fatty acid metabolism.

To give you a brief detail of the chemical reaction that culminates to the production of oxygen and liquid water in the metabolism of hydrogen peroxide, please refer to the diagram below.

2 H2O2 <-> O2 + 2H2O

As the cell metabolizes amino acid and fatty acids, it creates by-products, which are toxic to the cell itself and as these substances accumulates in the cytoplasm, their potential to damage the cell is enormous. The amount of these harmful substances is counterbalanced by the catalytic action of peroxisomes with the use of catalase enzyme, which breaks toxic hydrogen peroxide into a less toxic form - water and oxygen.

Analysis of enzymes in purified or partially purified microbodies from fungi indicates that they participate in the following biochemical functions8:

· Fatty acid degradation
· Glyoxylate cycle
· Purine metabolism
· methanol oxidation
· Assimilation of nitrogenous compounds
· Amine metabolism
· Oxalate synthesis

Glyoxysomes function in lipid, such as fatty acid, metabolism and its greatest glyoxysomic activity were found mostly in plants especially in fruits and seeds. It is in this organelle where chemical process known as glyoxylate cycle, where the start of the beta-oxidation (stepwise catabolism of fatty acids in which two-carbon fragments are successively removed from the carboxyl end of the chain) of fatty takes place, begins.

· Cilia and Flagella

Cilia and flagella are an important hallmark of a motile organism. Some types of cells may have evolved to become stationary but most of them retain one of these structures as in the case of ciliated cells of trachea and bronchioles of the lungs. They function in the movement of substances over their surface either for the distribution of substances for nutrition or moving particulate wastes out of the organism through its specialized excretory instrumentations. Our respiratory tract is kept clean by the actions made by these organelles especially when cilia present in the cells of trachea beat synchronously in one direction to move the foreign material trapped on the mucus (slippery secretions of the cell which moistens and protects) lining of the cell out towards the nose or the mouth to be swallowed.

Cilia and flagella are extra-cellular extensions that protrude from the cell. Although both structures are composed of the same material, which in this case are microtubules, one distinguishes the other from their length since flagella are longer than the cilia. Microtubules, the cytoskeleton that makes up cilia and flagella are composed of a globular protein tubulin. This globular protein is composed of alpha and beta tubulin dimer (a compound formed by the union of two radicals or two molecules of a simpler compound) suggesting its heterodimeric (composed of more than one dimer) structure. This dimer molecule connects to form a linear pattern called protofilament and these rows of globular proteins conjoin to frame a microtubule molecule.

· Vault

A decade ago (1992, although first reported in mid1980s but was not attributed a function), Leonard Rome and Nancy Kedersha of the UCLA School of Medicine recently discovered these subcellular organelle under a rat liver cell, although it has been observed that such particles/organelles exist in all nucleated cells observed so far. Among its properties are octagonal in structure, composed of RNA, and looks more like a cathedral vaults because of obvious multiple arch-type structure. They are believed to be nuclear pore complex plugs due to their shape although such assumptions alone were not yet verified due to lack of experimental evidence. These structures are usually found in a location where fiber precursors are building up to make actin protein. In that instance, Rome assumed that vaults are responsible for transporting , "mail trucking"as one of my classmate in UPOU calls it, the actin RNA templates in such actin-organizing region of cells. What scientists are trying to do today is that, they are attempting to disable the gene that is responsible for the production of vault protein. If paralyzation is complete and the cells show signs of failure for actin production then scientists are right that such organelles are responsible for actin protein assembly by providing templates for the production of actin (RNA templates). That confirms the "Mail Truck Theory" stipulated for the mobility of these subcellular organelles. They are not only found near the nucleus but througout the cytoplasm, probably due to their transporting ability from the nuclear pore through the rest of the cytoplasm. Additonally, another interesting fact to note here is that vaults are visibly abundant in multi-drug resistant cancer cells. This discovery lead to the hypothesis that these organelles participates in interceding drug resistance conferring the cell its ability to reject medication.

All the characteristics of living things, as outlined in the Module, can be traced back to the cell. Show, using examples, how your cell…

Metabolizes

Nearly all living things share certain basic characteristics. These characteristics include (1) reproduction; (2) growth; (3) metabolism; (4) movement; (5) responsiveness; and (6) adaptation. Not every organism exhibits all these features, and even nonliving things may show some of them. However, these characteristics as a group outline the basic nature of living things.5

Metabolism is one of the unique characteristics of a living thing. It is able to assimilate a component of its environment and transform it into a form that can be used to power the many processes undergone for its continued existence. Almost all books mention at least once in its entire content the more popular meaning of the word: “metabolism involves all the chemical processes by which an organism converts molecules and energy into forms that it can use.”5 All of the biological substrates needed by metabolism come from the environment although the energy that powers this process comes from sunlight, which is the ultimate source of energy of all living beings. Moreover, metabolism offers the organism’s body the opportunity for growth, and repair of damaged parts. It is interesting to note that metabolism is driven by a high-energy molecule (Adenosine Triphosphate) that is unique to living species. It stores and releases energy trapped between the bonds of phosphate that makes up the entire molecule.

Reproduces

Reproduction is a process by which living creatures uses to perpetuate their kind, which is better, or in worst cases, inferior to the parent living creature. All organisms reproduce or use some other mechanisms, which helps them to complete the process, even though some of them cannot reproduce by themselves (as in the case of viruses) and influences others to do it for them. Reproduction can be in many ways but primarily are classified as asexual or sexual, depending on the type of biological tool used (gamete or part of the body of the organism). Humans for example, reproduce by sexual means. This is performed using gametes as a tool to perpetuate its own kind. Major forms of individuals distinguishable among sexually reproducing species includes male or females. Both of these forms bear their own respective sexually active gamete ready to produce a viable offspring by fertilization from one of the other counterpart gamete. Asexual reproduction are usually performed by lower forms of animals such as bacteria where a new organism is produced by budding which is a characteristic of a hydra (small-bodied, freshwater polyps), releasing special kind of cells within the body of the organism which develops into a new, but identical individual as in the case of Sponges [any of a phylum (Porifera) of aquatic chiefly marine lower invertebrate animals that are essentially double-walled cell colonies that are permanently attached as adults(Merriam Webster Dictionary)], fragmentation (body of the parent organism breaks into two forming new individual) and regeneration (formation of a new individual using a lost or detached part) , which are characteristics of planarians and various echinoderms.

This process is an indispensable tool to counteracting the effect of death of an individual species. Reproduction itself is a major characteristic that sets living organisms apart from non-living entities and is a direct manifestation of an organism’s ability to violate the effect of the second law of thermodynamics, to put it simply, the “law of disorder” which is the fate of all matter in the universe.

There are two types of sexual reproduction. It comes in two forms: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces two daughter cells with equal number of genetic material with 2 copies (diploid) of them in each cell while meiosis produces offspring (daughter cells) with half the number of chromosomes or genetic material (haploid) as the parent cell. While mitosis produces two cells during replication meiosis produces 4 daughter cells carrying half the number of genetic material the original cell has.

Responds

All living organisms respond in various ways depending on their learned evolutionary differences but I believe that organisms respond in many ways due to their internal and conscious willingness to survive. Last week when I watched the movie “The Island”, I can’t help but agree with Ewan McGregor’s line, “I will do everything to survive” where he used his ability to pretend in order to mask his true identity and the bad guys from the cloning facility mistook someone else’s as he (in this regard, his source since he is a clone).

In the October 4, 2001 issue of the National Geographic News Online [I kept this one in my mailbox for a year!:-) ] a Swedish scientist named Arne Öhman, a psychologist at the Karolinska Institute and Hospital in Stockholm, Sweden has conducted experiment on the sources of fear of humans and further extrapolated the role of evolution itself from its development and survival use. He stated that, “individuals who have been good at identifying and recruiting defense responses to predators or aggressors have left more offspring than individuals with less efficient defense systems."6

Living species of plants and animals continue to survive because of their continued responsiveness to objects that hinders their survival and perpetuation. Size sometimes does not equate to less efficient in managing the effects of predation but good response mechanisms helps a certain species to be aware of what is happening in its environment and react on how to avoid threats.

Cells particularly do that by way of releasing chemicals or moving away from the location where the threat was detected (chemotaxis). This is dictated by the nucleus to counteract any effect the environment has to its survival and continued stability. For unicellular organisms such as bacteria, the chemicals surrounding them motivate their motility. This behavior is employed to find food in the environment or flee from the source of threat, which comes in form of predator or poison.

Adapts

Perhaps the most popular among the characteristics of living things is adaptation. This is because this topic is hotly debated in almost every biology class I have attended since high school, even when I was still teaching. J The main reason I can think of is our varied and sometimes irreconcilable beliefs as to the origin and diversity of life around us. Our religious belief sometimes gets in the way of our scientific thinking. We often ask questions like, “How did humans evolve?” “Is evolution really true, if yes, is it acceptable according to our own religious belief that we evolve from monkey’s (literally)?” “Is there a God who authored all these things?” Things like that sometimes interferes our scientific understanding and judgment as to what is true and what is not but basically there are evidences that supports evolution where vitalists, people who believe that living things are not governed solely by the laws of physics and chemistry but by which a potent life force present in all living things, fails.

All organisms have a knack on adapting to its environment. This ability helps the organism to survive under extreme environmental conditions and as when surrounded by environmental threats. Throughout the course of an organism’s evolution, organisms change due to internal need to suit their structure to the current environment. They may develop certain structures (modifications), or features not characterized by an organism’s physique such as stamina and endurance, that is employed to adapting to its niche (function in the ecosystem) or environment.

Species of organisms that shows the characteristics necessary to survive in an environment from which it functions most of the time reproduces offspring with similar abilities. They may reproduce more organisms that can survive but the organisms that are able to withstand the stress in the environment are able to pass on their desirable characteristics using reproduction mechanism and contribute to the fitness of the organisms to which their genes will be passed on. This what best describes natural selection; a natural process that results in the survival and reproductive success of individuals or groups best adjusted to their environment and that leads to the perpetuation of genetic qualities best suited to that particular environment (Merriam-Webster Dictionary).

Cells adapt to the environment by manipulating its internal machineries, producing proteins necessary for its survival and moving away from the source of danger by its unique locomotive ability. The cell particularly uses mRNAs to create proteins which direct the cell’s activity and in turn alter its behavior.

3. Define an Enzyme.

Putting it simply, an enzyme is protein biocatalyst, which lowers the amount of time a certain substance be modified (or digested) and provides the necessary venue for the chemical reaction to occur rapidly that would proceed otherwise at room temperature. The name enzyme was taken from the Greek énsimo, formed by én = in and simo yeast. This was due to the fact that many of the enzymes studied by scientists during the 1800s were of yeast in origin. Almost all enzymes are proteins. The basic structure and functionalities of enzymes are fully discussed in the next question. As early as 1800, scientists like Louis Pasteur (1822-1895 French chemist & microbiologist) and Hans and Eduard Buchner (1860-1917 German Chemists; awarded 1907 Nobel prize for chemistry for research on alcoholic fermentation) working on the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast cells, were able to conclude that something which Pasteur called “ferments”, were aiding the digestion and eventual degradation of sugar to alcohol and were thought to happen only in living organisms. With our knowledge in basic inorganic chemistry, we can now conclude that such assumption is incorrect since some inorganic substances (and organic substances) can act as much like the workings of an enzyme. Similar experiments were conducted by Buchner in 1897 and observed the same phenomenon though their purpose was purely medical. It was in the year 1926 when James B. Summer, an American Biochemist, confirmed that enzymes present in living systems are protein molecules. He was also the first person to isolate a pure enzyme in the form of crystals. 7

In terms of its composition.

Enzymes are structurally and functionally diverse just as animals are in a certain ecosystem. Diverse as they are, enzymes do share a common structure. An enzyme has an active site where a substrate, a molecule that binds to and acted upon by biological catalysts, fits snugly into the enzyme. The lock and key hypothesis is the most intelligible model by which we can understand the workings of an enzyme. In this model, the substrate, the reacting molecule, binds with an enzyme in the active site producing what we call a reaction intermediate, which also shows how an enzyme-substrate complex forms. This reaction intermediate is important for it provides a way for enzymes to lower the activation energy, the minimum amount of energy required to convert a normal stable molecule into a reactive molecule, of a substance when reacting to another substance than done otherwise. This way, a reaction that usually occurs years to complete is expedited to a minute or seconds upon the intervention of an enzyme molecule. Upon contact with a substrate, it was observed that an enzyme changes its shape to accommodate the shape of the entire substrate. This behavior is a characteristic of a covalent bond that connects the molecules of an enzyme and confers the molecule its apparent flexibility. This discovery led to the formulation of a new model for enzyme activity, which is known as Induced Fit Hypothesis in 1959 by Maxi Koshland. Under this hypothesis, active sites changes shape as substrates interact with it. The amino acids making up the active site is a flexible material, which fits the substrate snugly into the active site and performs the normal catalytic function.

Aside from the aforementioned main structure of an enzyme, an auxiliary molecule that aids the enzymes from performing their catalytic function called co-factors which includes co-enzymes (organic compound like vitamins or any derivative molecule of vitamins), and activators (trace elements such as copper, iron, or magnesium) are worth mentioning in this TMA. Co-factors can come in different shapes, sizes, forms, and kinds. If co-enzymes are firmly associated with an enzyme, they are called prosthetic groups.

In terms of its purpose in the cell

Enzymes function primarily to maneuver chemical reaction rapidly. Without them, a chemical reaction that usually last for a seconds will take years to complete. The presence of enzymes is critical to our biological existence for it helps the organism from performing its varied functions while supplying the correct form of molecule unique to a particular process. Most chemical reactions occur very slowly under ordinary temperature conditions but an enzyme speeds up this process and helps the production and modification of biological molecules by which the cell can readily use for its diverse functionalities. We have seen several cases of diseases where a defective enzyme is involved. One perfect example is for people with Phenylketonuria. Patients suffering from this disease suffer from mild to severe mental retardation, depending on the severity of the condition and blood phenylalanine levels. This condition manifests in patients who lacks the necessary enzyme to initiate the degradation of the essential amino acid phenylalanine, which in this case, the phenylalanine hydroxylase (hydroxylase: any of a group of enzymes that catalyze oxidation reactions in which one of the two atoms of molecular oxygen is incorporated into the substrate and the other is used to oxidize NADH or NADPH – Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary). In phenylketonuric patients, the enzyme responsible for the metabolism of the essential amino acid phenylalanine is completely or partially non-functional or in other cases, the lack of other enzymes necessary for the catabolistic process of the same is absent. Consequently, knowing that the amino acid cannot be metabolized, the unmonitored intake of phenylalanine causes an increase in phenylalanine in the blood and saturates the blood vessels causing organ damage especially the brain. Through genetic screening, it was found that this condition is genetic in origin and was due to a mutation in both alleles coding for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase and can be located in chromosome 12. Patients exhibiting these symptoms and found to be inflicted with this disease are kept in strict dietary supervision to control the intake of dietary phenylalanine thereby avoiding the consequences this disease portends.

Give a metaphor that will allow you to describe an enzyme to a fourteen year old. Explain your metaphor.

Using the descriptions provided above for enzymes, we could use the child eating a lollipop as an analogy to better understand the province of enzymes with the “lollipop” logically substituting the substrate and “saliva” as enzymes to a fourteen-year-old child. I can somehow illustrate to a novice learner of science how saliva acts as a destabilizing agent towards the partial digestion of the lollipop and better prepare it to further digestion in the stomach using the digestive juices (hydrochloric acid and other enzymes) as secondary agent for further enzymatic action. In this way, the basic foundation for the concept of enzymes is established using simple activity that is rather comprehensible to a juvenile pupil.

Find out where the enzymes are in the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology.

DNA <-> RNA > PROTEIN

In the above illustration, it describes the flow of genetic information starting from DNA as the template material for the production of succeeding molecules left of the diagram. According to this tenet, RNA molecules are arranged from the intricate structure of DNA by a process called transcription. In turn, the production of RNA from the DNA template will provide a new pattern to yield another product by translating the information contained in RNA to produce proteins, a process popularly known as translation. To every reaction that is taking place in the process of replication (DNA synthesis from DNA template), transcription (RNA production from DNA template) and translation (protein synthesis from RNA template), enzymes are always involved. Enzymes can be located in the arrows connecting each molecules produced by every reaction. In fact, the skeleton of this doctrine is quite so simple for many enzymes are involved in each reaction as represented by these arrows.

Enzymes are the catalyst of change that aids molecule to be created from one form to another. They provide the proper avenue in order for the chemical modification to takes place. A biochemical reaction cannot move on without the aid of chemical modifiers such as enzymes for they possess the necessary biochemical machinery to process a molecule in a form that an organism can readily use.

REFERENCES:

Online Resources/References:

1Dauben, Joseph W. "Science." World Book Online Reference Center. 2005. World Book, Inc. 17 July 2005.

2 Stanley Fay White, “The Meaning of Science”, 2000

3Science Scope by Kathryn L. Stout, B.S. Ed., M. Ed.

4Bruce Alberts, “Molecular biology of the cell.” 2002. 4th Ed.

5 Morowitz, Harold J. "Life." World Book Online Reference Center. 2005. World Book, Inc. 26 July 2005.

6John Roach. "Fear of Snakes, Spiders Rooted in Evolution, Study Finds." National Geographic News October 4, 2001.

7Rudolph, Frederick B. "Enzyme." World Book Online Reference Center. 2005. World Book, Inc. August 9, 2005.

8Carson, D. B. and Cooney, J. J., (1990), "Microbodies in fungi - a review", Journal of Industrial Microbiology, v 6, n 1, p 1-18

Mark Dalton. ”Online Biology Book.”

Regina Bailey. "Asexual Reproduction". BiologyAbout.com.

Jerry G. Johnson. ”The World of Biology.”

Dr. Michael Pidwirny. "The Hypothetico-deductive Method, the Science of Physical Geography." University of British Columbia - Okanagan 1999-2005

Other Resources (Hardbound and paperback copy Books, Encyclopedia)

Barrion, A. “Principles of Biology”. Philippines: UP Open University Office of the Academic Support and Instructional Services. 1994.

Campbell, N. Biology. California: The Benjamin/ Cummings Publishing Company, Inc. 1996.

Campbell, N. Et.al. Biology: Concepts and Connections. California: The Benjamin/ Cummings Publishing Company, Inc. 2003.

Enger, E. and Ross, F. “Concepts in Biology.” Boston: McGraw-Hill companies, Inc. 2000 International Edition.

Rubenstein, Irwin, and Susan M. Wick. "Cell." World Book Online Reference Center. 2005. World Book, Inc. 2 August. 2005.

Holtzman, N.A., and others: Loss of Dietary Control in Phenylketonuria. The New England Journal of Medicine 314:593-598, March 6, 1986.

Geoffrey M. Cooper. "Expression of Genetic Information" The Cell: A Molecular Approach. Second Edition Sinauer Associates, Inc., Boston University 2000

Harvey Lodish, et.al. “Synthesis of Biopolymers: Rules of Macromolecular Carpentry.”

Molecular Cell Biology,” W. H. Freeman and Company Fourth Edition 2000.

Vaults - Newly found cell organelles?

2005-08-14T15:01:00.000-07:00

By Betsy Hanson
DISCOVER Vol. 13 No. 06 June 1992 Biology & Medicine

Open any biology textbook and you’ll find a diagram of an animal cell, with its internal organelles--the nucleus that houses the genes, for instance, and the ribosomes that translate those genetic instructions into proteins--all neatly labeled. The picture looks complete. But the truth is that the average cell is loaded with particles that show up only dimly under microscopes, if at all, and have never been studied. They all look like little blobs, says biochemist Leonard Rome of the UCLA School of Medicine.

Rome has found, however, that one of those blobs deserves a label of its own. It is a newly identified organelle that dots most cells by the thousands, is three times as large as a ribosome...

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Evolution Revolution: Two Species Become One, Study Says

2005-08-12T15:37:00.000-07:00

James Owen for National Geographic News
July 27, 2005

A newfound insect shows that two species can combine to create a third species, and that humans may be unknowingly encouraging evolution, according to researchers.

Most new animal species are believed to arise when a single species splits into two. But new animals can also be created when two species come together to create a single new species, the researchers say.

This two-become-one evolutionary process, common among plants...

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The Genetic Systems of Mitochondria and Plastids

2005-07-09T13:57:00.000-07:00

It is widely accepted that mitochondria and plastids evolved from bacteria that were engulfed by nucleated ancestral cells. As a relic of this evolutionary past, both types of organelles contain their own genomes, as well as their own biosynthetic machinery for making RNA and organelle proteins. Mitochondria and plastids are never made from scratch, but instead arise by the growth and division of an existing mitochondrion or plastid. On average, each organelle must double in mass in each cell generation and then be distributed into each daughter cell. Even nondividing cells must replenish organelles...

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Science Journal Ranks Top 25 Unanswered Science Questions

2005-07-08T13:28:00.000-07:00

By John Roach for National Geographic News

What is the universe made of? What is the biological basis of consciousness? How long can the human life span be extended?

These are just some of the as-yet-unanswered scientific questions pondered in the July 1 special 125th-anniversary issue of the academic journal Science.

Editor-in-chief Donald Kennedy and news editor Colin Norman tasked their staff to list the most challenging questions in science today...

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AIDS boss warns of PNG epidemic

2005-07-03T11:21:00.000-07:00

Sunday, July 3, 2005; Posted: 3:17 a.m. EDT (07:17 GMT)

Asia has the second-largest number of people living with HIV/AIDS in the world after sub-Saharan Africa.

KOBE, Japan (AP) -- Papua New Guinea is at risk of an African-level HIV/AIDS epidemic, but other Asia-Pacific nations like Malaysia, Vietnam and Myanmar are also worrisome as the number of infections there continue to rise, the head of the U.N. AIDS agency has said.
The epidemic is as vast and diverse as the region itself with sex and injecting drug use the main engines driving the epidemic.

But there's simply not enough data to create a clear picture of the situation in many areas where other factors -- such as men who have sex with men -- could be contributing to rising numbers in cities and local communities, Dr. Peter Piot, head of UNAIDS

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Electrons in Atoms

2005-07-02T15:15:00.000-07:00

Atomic Spectra Information

Atomic spectra are useful for identifying different elements. Each element has its own unique atomic spectrum. This section will show how a line spectrum is created and compare it to a continuous spectrum.

A continuous spectrum is one in which the colors blend from one to another. A good example of this is a rainbow, the reds blend into the oranges, which blend into the yellows, then to greens, blues, and violets. There is not a distinct division between the colors in a continuous spectrum. When looking through a diffraction grating at ...

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Our Preferred Poison

2005-06-30T06:38:00.000-07:00

A little mercury is all that humans need to do away with themselves quietly, slowly, and surely
By Karen Wright Illustration by Don Foley
DISCOVER Vol. 26 No. 03 March 2005 Biology & Medicine

Let’s start with a straightforward fact:
Mercury is unimaginably toxic and dangerous.
A single drop on a human hand can be irreversibly fatal.
A single drop in a large lake can make all
the fish in it unsafe to eat.

Often referred to as quicksilver, mercury is the only common metal that is liquid at room temperature. Alchemists, including the young Sir Isaac Newton, believed it was the source of gold. In the modern era, it became a common ingredient of paints, diuretics, pesticides, batteries, fluorescent lightbulbs, skin creams, antifungal agents, vaccines for children, and of course, thermometers. There is probably some in your mouth right now...

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Debate over vaccines and autism continues

2005-06-30T06:35:00.000-07:00

Parents, scientists disagree over vaccine-autism link
Tuesday, June 28, 2005; Posted: 9:27 a.m. EDT (13:27 GMT)

Dinner was late. His cup held water, not soda. Strangers had stolen his mother's attention all afternoon. It is too much for the 9-year-old autistic child to bear. He begins to flap his arms and shriek, working himself into murderous screams that shatter his suburban home and all hope of a normal life.

His mother, the Rev. Lisa Sykes, has her own rage, against the demon she blames for Wesley's condition. It is thimerosal, a mercury-based preservative....

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France Wins Nuclear Fusion Plant

2005-06-28T11:40:00.000-07:00

France will host the experimental ITER nuclear fusion reactor, a multi-billion-euro project designed to emulate the sun's power, the six partners in the project agreed in Moscow on Tuesday, after Japan withdrew its bid.

The construction of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) will be a little like trying to build a star on earth. The technology is daunting, but if it works, scientists say the world will benefit from a source of energy that will...

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Risk Factors for Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever, Democratic Republic of the Congo

2005-06-27T09:24:00.000-07:00

Marburg hemorrhagic fever (MHF) is a severe illness caused by Marburg virus, a member of the Filoviridae family. MHF was first described in 1967 during outbreaks in Germany and the former Yugoslavia that were linked to monkeys imported from Uganda. Since then, only a few sporadic cases in East Africa and southern Africa and one laboratory infection have been identified. Serosurveys for Marburg antibodies in the general population generally have shown prevalences of <2%, indicating it to be a rare and highly lethal disease.

The largest outbreak of MHF recorded to date began in late 1998 in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Although the remoteness of the area and the civil war in eastern DRC delayed access and evaluation, in May 1999 a team of international investigators identified 73 cases...

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Controlling the Marburg outbreak in Angola

2005-06-27T09:16:00.000-07:00

International and local experts are working in the African country of Angola to control the largest ever recorded outbreak of Marburg haemorrhagic fever. Marburg fever is a rare but fatal disease caused by a virus from the same family as the Ebola virus.

Experts from the Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network are currently in Uige Province – the epicenter of the outbreak – and surrounding areas. They are working to control the outbreak through infection control, surveillance of new cases, and tracing and management of people who may have been in contact with someone with Marburg.

They have also been focused on training teachers and health workers, together with community education and involvement aimed at raising awareness of the disease among...

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Scientists: Mad cow in U.S. very rare

2005-06-26T15:37:00.000-07:00

Despite case of disease in U.S. cow, experts insist beef is safe
Saturday, June 25, 2005; Posted: 2:09 p.m. EDT (18:09 GMT)

NEW YORK (AP) -- The newly identified case of mad cow disease in an animal from an American herd shouldn't worry consumers, experts said, because the condition appears to be very rare and safeguards are in place to protect the food supply.

"It certainly is a minor concern" compared with ordinary food-borne diseases like salmonella and E. coli, said Dr. Richard Johnson of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, an authority on mad-cow-like diseases in animals and...

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Commonly Asked Questions About BSE in Products Regulated by FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN)

2005-06-26T15:30:00.000-07:00

What is "Mad Cow Disease" (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy/BSE)?

Mad Cow Disease is the commonly used name for Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), a slowly progressive, degenerative, fatal disease affecting the central nervous system of adult cattle. Since 1990, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has conducted aggressive surveillance of the highest risk cattle going to slaughter in the United States. To date, the only cow that has been found to be affected with BSE was the one diagnosed with BSE in December 2003.

What causes BSE?

The exact cause of BSE is not known but it is generally accepted by the scientific community that the likely cause is infectious forms of a type of protein, prions, normally found in animals cause BSE. In cattle with BSE, these abnormal prions initially occur in the small intestines...

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Heavy rice stands tall

2005-06-25T15:28:00.000-07:00

Emma Marris

Genetic techniques guide natural breeding process.

Biologists say they have built a better rice plant: one that is heavy with seeds, but not so tall that it will fall over in the rain.

The work is expected to help increase yields of rice, which is the staple grain for the majority of the world's population. The many-seeded variety is less likely than others to bend double in high winds or rain, and this keeps the tops out of the water and reduces their chance of rotting.

The new plant was made possible through a mix of modern and old-fashioned techniques. First, the recent availability of the rice genome allowed the researchers to investigate areas of the plant's DNA that influence productivity. Motoyuki Ashikari of Nagoya University and Hitoshi Sakakibara of RIKEN in Yokohama, along with their colleagues...

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Neutrino ripples spotted in space

2005-06-24T14:46:00.000-07:00

Mark Peplow

Universal lumpiness is imprinted in mysterious particles.

Astronomers have spotted a signature of neutrinos created just seconds after the Big Bang. The find supports current models of the origins of our Universe, and may provide a glimpse of its birth.The fundamental particles called neutrinos are difficult to study, because they interact so weakly with normal matter - trillions whizz straight through your body every second. But Roberto Trotta, an astrophysicist from Oxford University, UK, and his colleague Alessandro Melchiorri of the University of Rome 'La Sapienza', Italy, say that the signature of primordial neutrinos is written in the cosmic microwave background (CMB).

These microwaves are the remnants of light that shone 300,000 years after the Big Bang...

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WHO: Number of 2005 polio cases jumps

2005-06-24T14:22:00.000-07:00

Wednesday, June 22, 2005; Posted: 10:27 a.m. EDT (14:27 GMT)

In 1988, The World Health Organization launched a drive to eradicate polio globally through massive immunization efforts.

CHICAGO, Illinois (AP) -- The number of confirmed polio cases has reached 243 in Yemen, a country that was once believed to have been free of the disease, the chief of the World Health Organization said.

Yemen accounts for nearly half of the 533 cases in the world this year as of June 15, said Dr. Lee Jong-wook, the agency's director-general. A recent outbreak in Indonesia has brought the number of cases there to 51, he said.

"The threat of a polio importation is a real and continuing one," Lee said Tuesday. "The recent importation to Yemen and Indonesia...

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Q: What is the deadliest disease in the world?

2005-06-24T11:25:00.000-07:00

World health Organization
22 June 2005

A: The results of ranking the leading causes of death are subject to the cause categories used. The broader the cause categories used, the more likely they will rank among the top leading causes of death.

According to the estimates in The world health report 2004, there were 57 million deaths in the world in 2002. The broad category of all "noncommunicable diseases" killed 33.5 million people; communicable diseases, maternal and perinatal conditions, and nutritional conditions...

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Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus from Pet Rodents

2005-06-22T20:03:00.000-07:00

Rodents, such as mice, hamsters and guinea pigs, are popular as pets in many households. However, not all rodents that enter homes are intended as pets: some rodents are brought into homes as feed for other animals (e.g., pet snakes), and others, such as the house mouse, are pests that find their own way into homes. This fact sheet is intended to provide information about lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), which can be transmitted to humans by rodents, including wild and pet mice, hamsters, and, on occasion, guinea pigs.

What is LCMV?

LCMV is carried by rodents and can be passed to humans. Not all people who are exposed to the virus become ill. Signs and symptoms of LCMV infection are similar to those for influenza and include fever, stiff neck, malaise, anorexia (lack of appetite),...

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Common virus 'kills cancer'

2005-06-22T19:55:00.000-07:00

Wednesday, June 22, 2005; Posted: 9:17 a.m. EDT (13:17 GMT)

The virus targets cancer cells, but does not harm normal cells, researchers said.

WASHINGTON -- A common virus that is harmless to people can destroy cancerous cells in the body and might be developed into a new cancer therapy, US researchers said.
The virus, called adeno-associated virus type 2, or AAV-2, infects an estimated 80 percent of the population.

"Our results suggest that adeno-associated virus type 2, which infects the majority of the population but has no known ill effects, kills multiple types of cancer cells yet has no effect on healthy cells," said Craig Meyers, a professor of microbiology and immunology at the Penn State College of Medicine...

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Study: Extra folic acid may protect brain

2005-06-22T19:52:00.000-07:00

Tuesday, June 21, 2005; Posted: 10:17 a.m. EDT (14:17 GMT)

WASHINGTON (AP) -- High-dose folic acid pills -- providing as much of the nutrient as 2.5 pounds of strawberries -- might help slow the cognitive decline of aging.

So says a Dutch study that's the first to show a vitamin could really improve memory.
The research, unveiled Monday at a meeting of Alzheimer's researchers, adds to mounting evidence that a diet higher in folate is important for a variety of health effects. It's already proven to reduce birth defects, and research suggests it helps ward off heart disease and strokes, too.

The new study doesn't show folic acid could prevent Alzheimer's _ the people who tested the vitamin
didn't have symptoms of that disease.

But as people age, some decline in memory and other brain functions...

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CNN: Scientists find early signs of Alzheimer's

2005-06-21T11:28:00.000-07:00

Research concentrates on first regions of brain affected

Monday, June 20, 2005; Posted: 9:57 a.m. EDT (13:57 GMT)

Lead researcher Lisa Mosconi said the hippocamus seems to be affected first by Alzheimer's.

WASHINGTON (AP) -- A subtle change in a memory-making brain region seems to predict who will get Alzheimer's disease nine years before symptoms appear, scientists reported Sunday.

The finding is part of a wave of research aimed at early detection of the deadly dementia -- and one day perhaps even preventing it.

Researchers scanned the brains of middle-aged and older people while they were still healthy. They discovered that lower energy usage in a part of the brain called the hippocampus correctly signaled who would get Alzheimer's...

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CNN: Researchers identify new species

2005-06-20T08:35:00.000-07:00

Researchers identify new species
Catfish found in Mexico has ancient characteristics
Wednesday, June 15, 2005 Posted: 9:18 PM EDT (0118 GMT)

MEXICO CITY, Mexico (AP) -- Mexican and U.S. researchers said they believe an ancient-looking, rarely seen fish in a Mexican river represents a new species of catfish -- and an entirely new taxonomic family.

It would be only the third new family of fish found in the last 60 years and could offer scientists a view into the distant past, a Mexican scientist said Tuesday.

The new species was dubbed Lacantunia enigmatica, of the family Lacantuniidae, in an article published in the online scientific journal Zootaxa.

The names are derived from the fish's habitat in the Lacantun river of southern Chiapas state, a tributary of the Usumacinta river, which marks the boundary between ...

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The Antimatter Factory

2005-06-19T09:42:00.000-07:00

The Antimatter Factory
(by Django Manglunki)

Over the past 20 years scientists at CERN(Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire - European Organization for Nuclear Research) have been using antiparticles in many different ways for their daily work.
Antiparticles can be generated by colliding subatomic particles. Before being delivered to the various physics experiments, they must be isolated, collected and stored in order to tune their energy to the appropriate level.

Until now, each of these steps has been carried out by a dedicated machine with the main purpose of providing high energy antiparticles.

But now the first "self-contained antiproton factory", the Antiproton Decelerator (or AD), is operational at CERN . It will produce the low energy antiprotons needed for a range of studies, including the synthesis of antihydrogen atoms - the creation of antimatter.

What is the AD?

The Antiproton Decelerator is a very special machine compared to what already exists at CERN and other laboratories around the world. So far, an "antiparticle factory" consisted of a chain of several ...

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Discover Magazine : Sex, Ys, and Platypuses

2005-06-18T15:49:00.001-07:00

Sex, Ys, and Platypuses
By Jocelyn Selim
April 25, 2005 Biology & Medicine

For mammals, gender is usually a simple affair. From mice to elephants, a single pair of chromosomes control sex—inheriting double Xs makes females, while inheriting a Y makes males. But for the platypus, the story is a bit more complicated.

Unable to locate a single Y chromosome in the platypus, researchers had long considered its gender-determining genes a mystery. By using fluorescent labeling to track platypus chromosomes during cell division, Frank Gruetzner, a molecular biologist at the Australian National University, solved the puzzle. Instead of a single pair of sex chromosomes, the platypus has five—a record for vertebrates. “It’s not as confusing as it might be,” Gruetzner says. “The sex chromosomes link up in a chain, so a male platypus is always XYXYXYXYXY.”

Even more intriguing, one of the platypus’s Y chromosomes shares genes with the ZZ/ZW sex chromosomes found in birds, which are thought to have evolved separately. “We’re not certain exactly how the two are related...

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Astronomers: Earth's 'bigger cousin' detected

2005-06-18T12:21:00.000-07:00

CNN : Astronomers: Earth's 'bigger cousin' detected
By Michael SchirberSPACE.com
Monday, June 13, 2005 Posted: 3:17 PM EDT (1917 GMT)

National Science Foundation (NSF)
Astronomy
University of California Santa Cruz
Carnegie Institution of Washington

(SPACE.com) -- Astronomers announced Monday the discovery of the smallest planet so far found outside of our solar system.
About seven-and-a-half times as massive as Earth, and about twice as wide, this new extrasolar planet may be the first rocky world ever found orbiting a star similar to our own.
"This is the smallest extrasolar planet yet detected and the first of a new class of rocky terrestrial planets," said team member Paul Butler of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. "It's like Earth's bigger cousin."
Currently around 150 extrasolar planets are known, and the number continues to grow. But most of these far-off worlds are large gas giants ...

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